Article information
Full text is only aviable in PDF
REFERENCES
[1]
Global Initiative for Asthma.
Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention NHLBI/WHO Workshop Report.
[2]
V Plaza Moral, FJ Álvarez Gutiérrez, P Casan Clarà, N Cobos Barroso, A López Viña, MA Llauger Rosselló, en calidad de Comité Ejecutivo de la GEMA y en representación del grupo de redactores, et al.
Guía Española para el Manejo del Asma (GEMA).
Arch Bronconeumol, 39 (2003), pp. S1-S42
[3]
American Thoracic Society.
Proceedings of the ATS Workshop on Refractory Asthma. Current understanding, recommendations, and unanswered questions.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 162 (2000), pp. 2341-2351
[4]
RS Irwin, FJ Curley, CL French.
Difficult-to-control asthma. Contributing factors and outcome of a systematic management protocol.
Chest, 103 (1993), pp. 1662-1669
[5]
ERS Task Force.
Difficult/therapy-resistant asthma. The need for an integrated approach to define clinical phenotypes, evaluate risk factors, understand pathophysiology and find novel therapies.
Eur Respir J, 13 (1999), pp. 1198-1208
[6]
J Bousquet, P Cauwenberge, N Khaltaev, in collaboration with the World Health Organization.
Allergic Rhinitis and its impact on asthma. ARIA Workshop Report.
J Allergy Clin Immunol, 108 (2001), pp. S134-S147
[7]
SM Harding, MR Guzzo, JE Richter.
The prevalence of gastroesophageal reflux in asthma without reflux symptoms.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 162 (2000), pp. 34-39
[8]
GM Cochrane.
Compliance in asthma.
Eur Respir Rev, 8 (1998), pp. 348-350
[9]
GM Cochrane.
Practical issues in asthma management, 3 (1998), pp. 4-11
[12]
J Serra-Batlles, V Plaza, E Morejón, A Comella, J Brugues.
Costs of asthma according to the degree of severity.
Eur Respir J, 12 (1998), pp. 1322-1326
[13]
L Antonicelli, C Bucca, M Neri, F De Benedetto, P Sabbatani, F Bonifazi, et al.
Asthma severity and medical resource utilisation.
Eur Respir J, 23 (2004), pp. 723-729
[14]
AJ Sandford, T Chagani, S Zhu, TD Weir, TR Bai, JJ Spinelli, et al.
Polymorphisms in the IL4, IL4RA, and FCERIB genes and asthma severity.
J Allergy Clin Immunol, 106 (2000), pp. 135-140
[15]
LJ Pulleyn, R Newton, IM Adcock, PJ Barnes.
TGFbeta1 allele association with asthma severity.
Hum Genet, 109 (2001), pp. 623-627
[16]
C Szalai, GT Kozma, A Nagy, A Bojsszko, D Krikouszky, T Szabo, et al.
Polymorphism in the gene regulatory region of MCP-1 is associated with asthma susceptibility and severity.
J Allergy Clin Immunol, 108 (2001), pp. 375-381
[17]
O Migita, E Noguchi, Z Jian, M Shibasaki, T Migita, K Ichikawa, et al.
ADRB2 polymorphisms and asthma susceptibility: transmission disequilibrium test and meta-analysis.
Int Arch Allergy Immunol, 134 (2004), pp. 150-157
[18]
RH deRijk, M Schaaf, ER de Kloet.
Glucocorticoid receptor variants: clinical implications.
J Steroids Biochem Mol Biol, 81 (2002), pp. 103-122
[19]
N Roche.
Severe asthma and resistance to corticosteroids.
Med Hyg, 59 (2001), pp. 696-701
[20]
C Jenkins, J Costello, L Hodge.
Systematic review of prevalence of aspirin induced asthma and its implications for clinical practice.
BMJ, 328 (2004), pp. 434-436
[21]
SP Squillace, RB Sporik, G Raques, N Couture, A Lawrence, S Merriam, et al.
Sensitization to dust mites as a dominant risk factor for asthma among adolescents living in central Virginia: multiple regression analysis of a population-based study.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 156 (1997), pp. 1760-1764
[22]
M Halonen, DA Stern, AL Wright, LM Taussig, FD Martínez.
Alternaria as a major allergen for asthma in children raised in a desert environment.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 155 (1997), pp. 1356-1361
[23]
DL Rosenstreich, P Eggleston, M Kattan, D Baker, RG Slavin, P Gergen, et al.
The role of cockroach allergy and exposure to cockroach allergen in causing morbidity among inner-city children with asthma.
N Engl J Med, 336 (1997), pp. 1356-1363
[24]
V Siroux, I Pin, MP Oryszczyn, N le Moual, F Kauffmann.
Relationships of active smoking to asthma and asthma severity in the EGEA study: epidemiological study on the Genetics and Environment of Asthma.
Eur Respir J, 15 (2000), pp. 470-477
[25]
The ENFUMOSA Study Group.
The ENFUMOSA cross-sectional European multicentre study of the clinical phenotype of chronic severe asthma.
Eur Respir J, 22 (2003), pp. 470-477
[26]
SE Wencel, RL Gibbs, MV Lehr, EA Simoes.
Respiratory outcomes in high-risk children 7 to 10 years after prophylaxis with respiratory syncytial virus immune globulin.
Am J Med, 112 (2002), pp. 627-633
[27]
HL Von, T Vasankari, K Liippo, E Wahlstrom, M Puolakkainen.
Chlamydia pneumoniae and severity of asthma.
Scand J Infect Dis, 34 (2002), pp. 22-27
[28]
M Kraft, GH Cassell, JE Henson, H Watson, J Williamson, BP Marmion, et al.
Detection of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in the airways of adults with chronic asthma.
Am J Resp Crit Care Med, 158 (1998), pp. 998-1001
[29]
J Martin, E Powell, S Shore, J Emrich, LA Engel.
The role of respiratory muscles in the hyperinflation of bronchial asthma.
Am Rev Respir Dis, 121 (1980), pp. 441-447
[30]
A Gelb, N Zamel.
Unsuspected pseudophysiologic emphysema in chronic persistent asthma.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 162 (2000), pp. 1778-1782
[31]
Y Kikuchi, S Okabe, W Hida, M Homma, K Shirato, T Takishima.
Chemosensitivity and perception of dyspnea in patients with a history of near-fatal asthma.
N Engl J Med, 330 (1994), pp. 1329-1334
[32]
AJ Jenkins, C Cool, SJ Szefler, R Covar, S Brugman, EW Gelfand, et al.
Histopathology of severe childhood asthma.
Chest, 124 (2003), pp. 32-41
[33]
SE Wenzel, LB Schwartz, EL Langmack, JL Halliday, JB Trudeau, RL Gibbs, et al.
Evidence that severe asthma can be divided pathologically into two inflammatory subtypes with distinct physiologic and clinical characteristics.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 160 (1999), pp. 1001-1008
[34]
A Brinke, AH Zwinderman, PJ Sterk, KF Rabe, EH Bel.
“Refractory” eosinophilic airway inflammation in severe asthma. Effect of parenteral corticosteroids.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 170 (2004), pp. 601-605
[35]
SJ Szefler, DY Leung.
Glucocorticoid-resistant asthma: pathogenesis and clinical implications for management.
Eur Respir J, 10 (1997), pp. 1640-1647
[36]
SJ Lane, IM Adcock, D Richards, C Hawrylowicz, PJ Barnes, TH Lee.
Corticosteroid-resistant bronchial asthma is associated with increased c-fos expression in monocytes and T lymphocytes.
J Clin Invest, 102 (1998), pp. 2156-2164
[37]
PJ Barnes, AP Greening, GK Crompton.
Glucocorticoid resistance in asthma.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 152 (1995), pp. S125-S140
[38]
JG Matthews, K Ito, PJ Barnes, IM Adcock.
Defective glucocorticoid receptor nuclear translocation and altered histone acetylation patterns in glucocorticoid-resistant patients.
J Allergy Clin Immunol, 113 (2004), pp. 1100-1108
[39]
M Kagoshima, K Ito, B Cosio, IM Adcock.
Glucocorticoid suppression of nuclear factor-kappaB: a role for histone modifications.
Biochem Soc Trans, 31 (2003), pp. 60-65
[40]
PS Thomas, DM Geddes, PJ Barnes.
Pseudo-steroid resistant asthma.
Thorax, 54 (1999), pp. 352-356
[41]
DS Robinson, DA Campbell, SR Durham, J Pfeffer, PJ Barnes, KF Chung.
Systematic assessment of difficult-to-treat asthma.
Eur Respir J, 22 (2003), pp. 478-483
[42]
LG Heaney, E Conway, C Kelly, BT Johnston, C English, M Stevenson, et al.
Predictors of therapy resistant asthma: outcome of a systematic evaluation protocol.
Thorax, 58 (2003), pp. 561-566
[43]
KF Chung, RG Stirling, P Chanez, P Godard.
Severe therapy resistant asthma.
Eur Respir Mon, 23 (2003), pp. 312-338
[44]
J van Dixhoorn, HJ Duivenvoordon.
Efficacy of Nijmegen questionnaire in recognition of the hyperventilation syndrome.
J Psychosom Res, 29 (1985), pp. 199-206
[45]
CD Spielberger, RL Gorsuch, RE Lushene.
STAI, Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Self Evaluation Questionnaire). Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press; 1968. Spanish adaptation: Cuestionario de Ansiedad Estado-Rasgo, TEA, (1988),
[46]
M Nooman, P Chervinsky, WW Busse, SC Weisberg, J Pinnas, BP de Boisblanc, et al.
Fluticasone propionate reduces oral prednisone use while it improves asthma control and quality of life.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 152 (1995), pp. 1467-1473
[47]
S Wenzel, K Morgan, R Griffin, P Rogenes, B Goodwin, L Edwards, et al.
Improvement in health care utilization and pulmonary function in very severe asthmatics one year following initiation of fluticasone propionate (FP) therapy concurrent with evaluation at a national asthma referral center.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 157 (1998), pp. A874
[48]
HS Nelson, IL Bernstein, J Fink, TB Edwards, SL Spector, WW Storms, et al.
Oral glucocorticosteroid-sparing effect of budesonide administered by Turbuhaler: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study in adults with moderate-to-severe chronic asthma. Pulmicort Turbuhaler Study Group.
Chest, 113 (1998), pp. 1264-1271
[49]
CB Lofdahl, TF Reiss, JA Leff, E Israel, MJ Noonan, AF Finn, et al.
Randomized placebo controlled trial of effect of a leukotriene receptor antagonist, montelukast, on tapering inhaled corticosteroids in asthmatic patients.
BMJ, 319 (1999), pp. 87-90
[50]
P Ernst, JM Fitzgerald, S Spier.
Canadian Asthma Consensus Conference. Summary of recommendations.
Can Respir J, 3 (1996), pp. 89-100
[51]
AJ Woolcock.
Corticosteroid-resistant asthma. Definitions.
Am J Crit Care Med, 154 (1996), pp. S45-S48
[52]
RG Ogirola, TK Aldrich, DJ Prezant, MJ Sinnett, JB Enders, MH Willians Jr.
High-dose intramuscular triamcinolone in severe, chronic, life-threatening asthma.
N Engl J Med, 324 (1991), pp. 585-589
[53]
S Veeraraghavan, OP Sharma.
Parenteral triamcinolone acetonide an alternative corticosteroid for the treatment of asthma.
Curr Opin Pulm Med, 4 (1998), pp. 31-35
[54]
Dewey A, Dean T, Bara A, Lasserson TJ, Walters EH. Colchicina como agente economizador de corticosteroides orales para el asma. In: Cochrane Library plus in Spanish. Oxford: Update Software. Most recently updated: April 10, 2003.
[55]
Dean T, Dewey A, Bara A, Lasserson TJ, Walters EH. Cloroquina como agente economizador de esteroides para el asma. In: Cochrane Library plus in Spanish. Oxford: Update Software. Most recently updated: July 24, 2003.
[56]
A Dewey, A Bara, T Dean, EH Walters.
Dapsone as an oral corticosteroid sparing agent for asthma (Cochrane Review).
The Cochrane Library, Issue 1, 2004, John Wiley & Sons, (2004),
[57]
DJ Evans, P Cullinan, DM Geddes, EH Walters, PW Jones.
Troleandomycin as an oral corticosteroid sparing agent in stable asthma (Cochrane Review).
The Cochrane Library, Issue 1, 2004, John Wiley & Sons, (2004),
[58]
A Jones, J Fay, D Evans.
Intravenous immunoglobulin as a corticosteroid sparing agent for chronic asthma (Protocol for a Cochrane Review).
The Cochrane Library, Issue 1, 2004, John Wiley & Sons, (2004),
[59]
CS Corrigan.
Asthma refractory to glucocorticoids: the role of newer immunosuppressants.
Am J Respir Med, 1 (2002), pp. 47-54
[60]
T Dean, A Dewey, A Bara, TJ Lasserson, EH Walters.
Azathioprine as an oral corticosteroid sparing agent for asthma (Cochrane Review).
The Cochrane Library, Issue 1, 2004, John Wiley & Sons, (2004),
[61]
DJ Evans, P Cullinan, DM Geddes, EH Walters, PW Jones.
Gold as an oral corticosteroid sparing agent in stable asthma (Cochrane Review).
The Cochrane Library, Issue 4, 2003, John Wiley & Sons, (2003),
[62]
DJ Evans, P Cullinan, DM Geddes, EH Walters, PW Jones.
Cyclosporin as an oral corticosteroid sparing agent in stable asthma (Cochrane Review).
The Cochrane Library, Issue 1, 2004, John Wiley & Sons, (2004),
[63]
MF Mullarkey, BA Blumenstein, WP Andrade, GA Bailey, I Olason, CE Wetzel.
Methotrexate in the treatment of corticosteroid-dependent asthma. A double-blind crossover study.
N Engl J Med, 318 (1988), pp. 603-607
[64]
G Kanzow, D Nowak, H Magnussen.
Short term effect of methotrexate in severe steroid-dependent asthma.
Lung, 173 (1995), pp. 223-231
[65]
H Davies, L Olson, P Gibson.
Methotrexate as a steroid sparing agent for asthma in adults (Cochrane Review).
The Cochrane Library, Issue 2, 2004, John Wiley & Sons, (2004),
[66]
S Walker, M Monteil, K Phelan, TJ Lasserson, EH Walters.
Anti-IgE for chronic asthma in adults and children.
Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 3 (2004), pp. CD003559
[67]
G Hochhaus, L Brookman, H Fox, C Johnson, Matthews, S Ren, et al.
Pharmacodynamics of omalizumab: implications for optimised dosing strategies and clinical efficacy in the treatment of allergic asthma.
Curr Med Res Opin, 19 (2003), pp. 491-498
[68]
M Humbert, R Beasley, J Ayres, R Slavin, J Hébert, J Bousquet, et al.
Benefits of omalizumab as add-on therapy in patients with severe persistent asthma who are inadequately controlled despite best available therapy (GINA 2002 step 4 treatment): INNOVATE.
Allergy, 60 (2005), pp. 309-316
[69]
J Kolbe, W Fergusson, M Vamos, J Garret.
Care-control study of severe life threatening asthma in adults: demographics, health care, and management of the acute attack.
Thorax, 55 (2000), pp. 1007-1015
[70]
MJ Abramson, MJ Bailey, FJ Couper, JS Driver, OH Drummer, AB Forbes, et al.
Are asthma medications and management related to deaths from asthma?.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 163 (2001), pp. 12-18
[71]
RC Strunk.
Defining asthma in the preschool-aged child.
Pediatrics, 109 (2002), pp. S357-S361
[72]
M McKean, F Ducharme.
Inhaled steroids for episodic viral wheeze of childhood.
Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2 (2000), pp. CD001107
[73]
M Weinberger.
Consensus statement from a conference on treatment of viral respiratory infection-induced asthma in young children.
J Pediatr, 142 (2003), pp. S45-S46
[74]
RS Cane, SC Ranganathan, SA McKenzie.
What do parents of wheezy children understand by “wheeze”?.
Arch Dis Child, 82 (2000), pp. 327-332
[75]
AO Faniran, JK Peat, AJ Woolcock.
Persistent cough: is it asthma?.
Arch Dis Child, 79 (1998), pp. 411-414
[76]
ME Krawiec, JY Westcott, HW Chu, S Balzar, JB Trudeau, LB Schwartz, et al.
Persistent wheezing in very young children is associated with lower respiratory inflammation.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 163 (2001), pp. 1338-1343
[77]
J Douwes, P Gibson, J Pekkanen, N Pearce.
Non-eosinophilic asthma: importance and possible mechanisms.
Thorax, 57 (2002), pp. 643-648
[78]
DN Payne, NM Wilson, A James, H Hablas, C Agrafioti, A Bush.
Evidence for different subgroups of difficult asthma in children.
Thorax, 56 (2001), pp. 345-350
[79]
D Payne, SA McKenzie, S Stacey, D Misra, E Haxby, A Bush.
Safety and ethics of bronchoscopy and endobronchial biopsy in difficult asthma.
Arch Dis Child, 84 (2001), pp. 423-426
[80]
D Payne, A Bush.
Phenotype-specific treatment of difficult asthma in children.
Paediatr Respir Rev, 5 (2004), pp. 116-123
[81]
FE Simons, JR Villa, BW Lee, AM Teper, B Lyttle, G Aristizabal, et al.
Montelukast added to budesonide in children with persistent asthma: a randomized, double-blind, crossover study.
J Pediatr, 138 (2001), pp. 694-698
[82]
Panickar JR, Kenia P, Silverman M, Grigg J. Intramuscular triamcinolone for difficult asthma. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2005; In press.
[83]
ME Coren, M Rosenthal, A Bush.
The use of cyclosporin in corticosteroid dependent asthma.
Arch Dis Child, 77 (1997), pp. 522-523
Copyright © 2005. Sociedad Española de Neumología y Cirugía Torácica (SEPAR)
