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        "titulo" => "Resumen"
        "resumen" => "<span id="absec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Se efect&#250;a un an&#225;lisis personal de la utilizaci&#243;n de los llamados protocolos m&#233;dicos en neumolo-g&#237;a&#46; La problem&#225;tica de &#233;stos comienza en la misma definici&#243;n del concepto protocolo&#46; Teniendo en cuenta diversas circunstancias&#44; se podr&#237;a definir como protocolo m&#233;dico a un &#171;documento que contiene los acuerdos tomados en junta o asamblea m&#233;dica&#187;&#46;</p><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Estos protocolos m&#233;dicos pueden ser arbitrariamente clasificados en protocolos de diagn&#243;stico&#44; de clasificaci&#243;n&#44; terap&#233;uticos&#44; de procedimiento diagn&#243;stico y de investigaci&#243;n cl&#237;nica&#46; Estos &#250;ltimos&#44; se nutren de los previos&#44; y su utilidad se cifra en alcanzar resultados medibles&#46;</p><p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">La primera cuesti&#243;n que se plantea acerca de los protocolos m&#233;dicos es conocer su presencia como necesaria&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">La necesidad</span> de poseer protocolos m&#233;dicos puede venir justificada por diversos motivos&#46; Entre ellos figura el problema de la in-certidumbre diagn&#243;stica o terap&#233;utica&#44; los problemas &#233;ticos ante decisiones m&#233;dicas&#44; la necesidad de elevar y homogeneizar la calidad asisten-cial&#46; la necesidad de poseer c&#243;digos de trabajo que sean v&#225;lidos para diferentes personas o grupos&#44; la necesidad de sumar experiencias de diferente procedencia&#44; y la necesidad de evaluar cuantitativamente el conocimiento m&#233;dico&#46; Asimismo aparecen otras motivaciones para la g&#233;nesis del protocolo m&#233;dico&#44; como es la ausencia-sobrecarga de informaci&#243;n m&#233;dica&#46; La ausencia en libros de texto de gu&#237;as &#250;tiles de actuaci&#243;n ante problemas neumol&#243;gicos habituales y la excesiva cantidad de informaci&#243;n proveniente de otra forma de comunicaci&#243;n cient&#237;fica&#44; fundamentalmente de revistas m&#233;dicas&#46; El agrupamiento y s&#237;ntesis del conocimiento existente en un momento dado y en un aspecto concreto es la motivaci&#243;n&#46; en ocasiones&#44; de la realizaci&#243;n de un protocolo m&#233;dico&#46;</p><p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Para la <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">realizaci&#243;n pr&#225;ctica</span> de estos protocolos m&#233;dicos es imprescindible una serie de normas b&#225;sicas&#46; Estas son&#58; 1&#46; Definici&#243;n y justificaci&#243;n del problema sujeto al protocolo&#46; 2&#46; Revisi&#243;n bibliogr&#225;fica del tema en estudio&#46; 3&#46; Necesidad de consenso entre partes&#46; 4&#46; Preparaci&#243;n escrita del protocolo&#44; estimulando la formaci&#243;n de &#225;rboles de decisiones&#44; en donde todas las variables que afectan al diagn&#243;stico o a la terap&#233;utica est&#233;n contempladas&#46;</p><p id="spar0025" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Las normas</span> para la realizaci&#243;n de estudios de investigaci&#243;n cl&#237;nica&#44; requieren lo indicado previamente para los otros tipos de protocolo&#44; con un dise&#241;o diferente en donde la colaboraci&#243;n con inform&#225;tica es habitualmente necesaria&#46;</p><p id="spar0075" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">En el estudio protocolizado de la patolog&#237;a neumol&#243;gica pueden aplicarse modelos matem&#225;ticos que reduzcan a n&#250;meros el conocimiento de la sensibilidad o especificidad de un test&#44; o el conocer la probabilidad de que una persona tenga la enfermedad dependiente de que un s&#237;ntoma&#46; signo o test est&#233; presente o no&#44; o sea positivo o negativo&#44; lo que en teor&#237;a facilitar&#237;a la decisi&#243;n m&#233;dica sobre datos objetivos y favorecer&#237;a la aparici&#243;n de protocolos de diagn&#243;stico o tratamientos m&#225;s rigurosos&#46; La elaboraci&#243;n de este c&#225;lculo matem&#225;tico favorece el conocimiento para cualquier test de los verdaderos negativos&#44; verdaderos positivos&#44; del &#237;ndice de falsos negativos y de falsos positivos&#44; y de la elaboraci&#243;n matem&#225;tica del conocimiento de la probabilidad de tener una enfermedad mediante el teorema de Bayes&#46; Esta formulaci&#243;n te&#243;rica se ve contrastada con las serias dificultades encontradas en la realizaci&#243;n pr&#225;ctica de estos complejos&#44; y no siempre fiables&#44; sistemas de valoraci&#243;n cuantitativa&#46;</p><p id="spar0080" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">En la pr&#225;ctica&#44; los protocolos m&#233;dicos ofrecen respuestas parciales a las necesidades planteadas previamente&#44; y habitualmente proveen&#44; mediante operaciones de consenso&#44; facilidad para obtener criterio en diversas circunstancias&#46;</p><p id="spar0085" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Los mayores <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">peligros e inconvenientes</span> de los protocolos son&#58; 1&#46; Disminuir el ejercicio cr&#237;tico y confiar excesivamente en protocolos&#46; 2&#46; Olvido en la actualizaci&#243;n de un protocolo escrito&#46; 3&#46; Intento de trasplantar un protocolo con sus normas y detalles&#44; de un grupo de trabajo a otro&#44; sin ser elaborado o criticado por el que lo recibe&#46; 4&#46; Intentar protocolizarlo todo&#46; 5&#46; Burocracia excesiva&#46; 6&#46; Financiaci&#243;n escasa&#46; 7&#46; Ausencia de esp&#237;ritu de trabajo cooperativo&#46;</p><p id="spar0090" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">En resumen la opini&#243;n ante los protocolos m&#233;dicos es favorable pero prudente&#46; Tener un protocolo sobre una concreta situaci&#243;n neumol&#243;gica no resuelve por s&#237; mismo el problema pero favorece su resoluci&#243;n&#46; Un an&#225;lisis colectivo ante un problema en un paciente concreto puede superar al efectuado en el protocolo escrito&#44; por lo que hay que considerar al protocolo m&#233;dico&#44; por definici&#243;n&#44; como un producto inacabado que requiere actualizaci&#243;n y an&#225;lisis permanentes&#46;</p></span>"
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        "resumen" => "<span id="absec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0030" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">The author presents a personal&#44; critical analysis of the use of medical protocols in pneumology&#46; The first problem encountered lies in the definition of the term &#171;protocol&#187;&#44; which&#44; by taking into account different circumstances&#44; might be defined as being &#171;a document stating decisions made by a medical board or meeting&#187;&#46; These protocols may then &#8212; arbitrarily &#8212; be classified as diagnostic&#44; classifying&#44; therapeutic&#44; diagnostic procedure or clinical trial protocols&#46; The clinical trial protocols are in turn&#44; governed by the previous ones and their usefulness is measured by the results obtained of the trial&#46;</p><p id="spar0035" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">The first question to be answered is whether they are truly necessary&#46; The need for a protocol may be justified in several ways&#58; uncertainty as to establishing a firm diagnosis or therapeutic measures&#59; decisions posing ethical problems&#59; the need to improve medical care&#59; working guide lines for several persons or groups&#59; the necessity to summarize experiences from different sources and quantitative evaluation of medical knowledge&#46; Other reasons for a protocol might be the scarcity or even plentitude of information&#46; The textbooks on pneumology do not offer any useful guidelines on the management of common problems&#44; while other publications such as journals offer too much information to be of use for easy reference&#46; The sorting out of existing knowledge on a certain subject may at times be a valid reason for a protocol&#46;</p><p id="spar0040" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">To establish a medical protocol&#44; certain basic rules are essential&#58; 1&#41; Definition and justification of the reason for the protocol 2&#41; Bibliographic revisi&#243;n of the literature on the subject 3&#41; unanimity between participants 4&#41; preparation of the protocol in writing&#44; thereby encouraging decisi&#243;n taking in all branches&#44; creating an all-over view of variables which might influence diagnosis or therapy&#46;</p><p id="spar0045" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Clinical trial protocols follow the same guidelines and rules as do the other protocols but with a different design&#44; allowing corraboration of available information&#46;</p><p id="spar0050" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">A protocol directed study in pneumology can use mathematical models to reduce known sensitivity or specificity of a test to simple numbers&#44; or to calc&#250;late&#44; when certain signs or symptoms are presented whether there is existing disease&#59; in theory this would aid the correct medical decisions to be taken and would favor the drawing-up of stricter diagnostic and therapeutic protocols&#46; The mathematic calculus is hepful in deciding when test results are true negative&#44; true positive&#44; false negative or false positive&#44; while it may be used with Bayes theorem to deduce the probability of disease being present or not&#46; However&#44; these theoretical possibilities encounter serious difficulties whenever one of these complex&#44; not always reliable systems of quantitative evaluation is attempted&#46;</p><p id="spar0055" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">In practice&#44; medical protocols offers partial answers to some of the questions posed and usually establish&#44; through consensus&#44; criteria valid under different circumstances&#46; The main dangers and inconveniences inherent in protocols are&#58; 1&#41; blind following of the protocol without sufficient critical judgement 2&#41; lack of bringing up to date in wirtten protocols 3&#41; transferring a protocol from one group of workers to another&#44; without it having been either designed or critically analysed by the group receiving the protocol&#46; 4&#41; trying to reduce everything to protocols 5&#41; excess paperwork 6&#41; lack of financing 7&#41; lack of team spirit&#46;</p><p id="spar0060" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">In summary&#44; while protocols may be regarded as useful&#44; caution must be exercised&#46; A protocol alone does not solve a definite problem in pneumology&#44; although it may be of help in doing so&#46; The case of a patient is often better served by critical team appraisal than by protocols&#44; thus&#44; the protocol must be defined as an incomplete tool needing constant bringing up-to-date and analysis&#46;</p></span>"
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Vol. 18. Issue 2.
Pages 85-108 (March - April 1982)
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Vol. 18. Issue 2.
Pages 85-108 (March - April 1982)
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Estudios protocolizados en neumologia. analisis critico
A critical analysis of protocol directed studies in pneumology
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5752
A. Lopez Encuentra
Sección de Neumología. Ciudad Sanitaria de la S. S. 1.° de Octubre. Madrid
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Se efectúa un análisis personal de la utilización de los llamados protocolos médicos en neumolo-gía. La problemática de éstos comienza en la misma definición del concepto protocolo. Teniendo en cuenta diversas circunstancias, se podría definir como protocolo médico a un «documento que contiene los acuerdos tomados en junta o asamblea médica».

Estos protocolos médicos pueden ser arbitrariamente clasificados en protocolos de diagnóstico, de clasificación, terapéuticos, de procedimiento diagnóstico y de investigación clínica. Estos últimos, se nutren de los previos, y su utilidad se cifra en alcanzar resultados medibles.

La primera cuestión que se plantea acerca de los protocolos médicos es conocer su presencia como necesaria. La necesidad de poseer protocolos médicos puede venir justificada por diversos motivos. Entre ellos figura el problema de la in-certidumbre diagnóstica o terapéutica, los problemas éticos ante decisiones médicas, la necesidad de elevar y homogeneizar la calidad asisten-cial. la necesidad de poseer códigos de trabajo que sean válidos para diferentes personas o grupos, la necesidad de sumar experiencias de diferente procedencia, y la necesidad de evaluar cuantitativamente el conocimiento médico. Asimismo aparecen otras motivaciones para la génesis del protocolo médico, como es la ausencia-sobrecarga de información médica. La ausencia en libros de texto de guías útiles de actuación ante problemas neumológicos habituales y la excesiva cantidad de información proveniente de otra forma de comunicación científica, fundamentalmente de revistas médicas. El agrupamiento y síntesis del conocimiento existente en un momento dado y en un aspecto concreto es la motivación. en ocasiones, de la realización de un protocolo médico.

Para la realización práctica de estos protocolos médicos es imprescindible una serie de normas básicas. Estas son: 1. Definición y justificación del problema sujeto al protocolo. 2. Revisión bibliográfica del tema en estudio. 3. Necesidad de consenso entre partes. 4. Preparación escrita del protocolo, estimulando la formación de árboles de decisiones, en donde todas las variables que afectan al diagnóstico o a la terapéutica estén contempladas.

Las normas para la realización de estudios de investigación clínica, requieren lo indicado previamente para los otros tipos de protocolo, con un diseño diferente en donde la colaboración con informática es habitualmente necesaria.

En el estudio protocolizado de la patología neumológica pueden aplicarse modelos matemáticos que reduzcan a números el conocimiento de la sensibilidad o especificidad de un test, o el conocer la probabilidad de que una persona tenga la enfermedad dependiente de que un síntoma. signo o test esté presente o no, o sea positivo o negativo, lo que en teoría facilitaría la decisión médica sobre datos objetivos y favorecería la aparición de protocolos de diagnóstico o tratamientos más rigurosos. La elaboración de este cálculo matemático favorece el conocimiento para cualquier test de los verdaderos negativos, verdaderos positivos, del índice de falsos negativos y de falsos positivos, y de la elaboración matemática del conocimiento de la probabilidad de tener una enfermedad mediante el teorema de Bayes. Esta formulación teórica se ve contrastada con las serias dificultades encontradas en la realización práctica de estos complejos, y no siempre fiables, sistemas de valoración cuantitativa.

En la práctica, los protocolos médicos ofrecen respuestas parciales a las necesidades planteadas previamente, y habitualmente proveen, mediante operaciones de consenso, facilidad para obtener criterio en diversas circunstancias.

Los mayores peligros e inconvenientes de los protocolos son: 1. Disminuir el ejercicio crítico y confiar excesivamente en protocolos. 2. Olvido en la actualización de un protocolo escrito. 3. Intento de trasplantar un protocolo con sus normas y detalles, de un grupo de trabajo a otro, sin ser elaborado o criticado por el que lo recibe. 4. Intentar protocolizarlo todo. 5. Burocracia excesiva. 6. Financiación escasa. 7. Ausencia de espíritu de trabajo cooperativo.

En resumen la opinión ante los protocolos médicos es favorable pero prudente. Tener un protocolo sobre una concreta situación neumológica no resuelve por sí mismo el problema pero favorece su resolución. Un análisis colectivo ante un problema en un paciente concreto puede superar al efectuado en el protocolo escrito, por lo que hay que considerar al protocolo médico, por definición, como un producto inacabado que requiere actualización y análisis permanentes.

Summary

The author presents a personal, critical analysis of the use of medical protocols in pneumology. The first problem encountered lies in the definition of the term «protocol», which, by taking into account different circumstances, might be defined as being «a document stating decisions made by a medical board or meeting». These protocols may then — arbitrarily — be classified as diagnostic, classifying, therapeutic, diagnostic procedure or clinical trial protocols. The clinical trial protocols are in turn, governed by the previous ones and their usefulness is measured by the results obtained of the trial.

The first question to be answered is whether they are truly necessary. The need for a protocol may be justified in several ways: uncertainty as to establishing a firm diagnosis or therapeutic measures; decisions posing ethical problems; the need to improve medical care; working guide lines for several persons or groups; the necessity to summarize experiences from different sources and quantitative evaluation of medical knowledge. Other reasons for a protocol might be the scarcity or even plentitude of information. The textbooks on pneumology do not offer any useful guidelines on the management of common problems, while other publications such as journals offer too much information to be of use for easy reference. The sorting out of existing knowledge on a certain subject may at times be a valid reason for a protocol.

To establish a medical protocol, certain basic rules are essential: 1) Definition and justification of the reason for the protocol 2) Bibliographic revisión of the literature on the subject 3) unanimity between participants 4) preparation of the protocol in writing, thereby encouraging decisión taking in all branches, creating an all-over view of variables which might influence diagnosis or therapy.

Clinical trial protocols follow the same guidelines and rules as do the other protocols but with a different design, allowing corraboration of available information.

A protocol directed study in pneumology can use mathematical models to reduce known sensitivity or specificity of a test to simple numbers, or to calcúlate, when certain signs or symptoms are presented whether there is existing disease; in theory this would aid the correct medical decisions to be taken and would favor the drawing-up of stricter diagnostic and therapeutic protocols. The mathematic calculus is hepful in deciding when test results are true negative, true positive, false negative or false positive, while it may be used with Bayes theorem to deduce the probability of disease being present or not. However, these theoretical possibilities encounter serious difficulties whenever one of these complex, not always reliable systems of quantitative evaluation is attempted.

In practice, medical protocols offers partial answers to some of the questions posed and usually establish, through consensus, criteria valid under different circumstances. The main dangers and inconveniences inherent in protocols are: 1) blind following of the protocol without sufficient critical judgement 2) lack of bringing up to date in wirtten protocols 3) transferring a protocol from one group of workers to another, without it having been either designed or critically analysed by the group receiving the protocol. 4) trying to reduce everything to protocols 5) excess paperwork 6) lack of financing 7) lack of team spirit.

In summary, while protocols may be regarded as useful, caution must be exercised. A protocol alone does not solve a definite problem in pneumology, although it may be of help in doing so. The case of a patient is often better served by critical team appraisal than by protocols, thus, the protocol must be defined as an incomplete tool needing constant bringing up-to-date and analysis.

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