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Tanto es as&#237; que la incidencia se triplica o cuadriplica cuando la edad es &#62;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>65 a&#241;os<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a>&#46; La causa no est&#225; clara&#44; pero podr&#237;a ser multifactorial&#44; ya sea debida a inmunosenescencia por debilidad inmunitaria &#40;innata y adaptativa&#41; o por existir en este grupo de edad una mayor incidencia de aspiraciones asintom&#225;ticas<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> o converger otros factores de riesgo &#40;FR&#41; que en personas m&#225;s j&#243;venes no adquieren significaci&#243;n estad&#237;stica&#44; pero en grupos de mayor edad cobran protagonismo&#44; posiblemente por efecto sumatorio&#46; Uno de ellos puede ser el tabaquismo&#44; que es el principal FR de EPOC&#44; y esta a su vez es uno de los principales FR de NAC&#46; Por ello&#44; muchas veces resulta dif&#237;cil discernir el peso espec&#237;fico que pueda tener el consumo de tabaco en la aparici&#243;n de la NAC&#44; sobre todo teniendo en cuenta que fumar se asocia a menor estatus socioecon&#243;mico&#44; deficiente alimentaci&#243;n&#44; mayor consumo de alcohol y menor actividad f&#237;sica&#44; que a su vez tambi&#233;n son FR de infecci&#243;n respiratoria<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a>&#46;</p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Pero en la actualidad disponemos de suficientes estudios en los que&#44; mediante an&#225;lisis estad&#237;stico con modelos de regresi&#243;n log&#237;stica&#44; se puede diferenciar cualquier factor de confusi&#243;n&#44; permitiendo resaltar que el tabaco&#44; por s&#237; solo&#44; incrementa el riesgo de neumon&#237;a&#46; En este sentido se ha publicado un estudio de base poblacional<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;3</span></a> en el que se demuestra incremento del riesgo de NAC en fumadores&#44; que adem&#225;s guarda relaci&#243;n directa con la duraci&#243;n del consumo de tabaco y con la cantidad de cigarrillos consumidos&#46; Al mismo tiempo se demuestra que dicho riesgo desaparece cuando se abandona el h&#225;bito&#46; De hecho&#44; al cabo de 5 a&#241;os el riesgo disminuye un 50&#37;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a>&#46; Adem&#225;s&#44; si tenemos en cuenta que uno de los criterios de causalidad entre 2 factores es el de dosis-respuesta&#44; el aumento del riesgo al aumentar la intensidad del consumo y la cantidad de tabaco refuerza a&#250;n m&#225;s la idea de que el tabaco es un agente directo causal de NAC&#46; Por otro lado&#44; sabemos que el consumo de tabaco altera morfol&#243;gicamente el epitelio de la mucosa bronquial&#44; con p&#233;rdida de cilios&#44; hipertrofia de las gl&#225;ndulas mucosas y aumento de c&#233;lulas caliciformes&#44; que pueden favorecer la presencia de g&#233;rmenes en el &#225;rbol bronquial y su propagaci&#243;n&#44; produciendo una reacci&#243;n inflamatoria en la v&#237;a a&#233;rea con activaci&#243;n de macr&#243;fagos y neutr&#243;filos que liberan proteasas&#44; desencadenando una situaci&#243;n de estr&#233;s oxidativo y liberaci&#243;n de citoquinas&#44; dando lugar a una respuesta inmune tanto innata como adaptativa<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0040"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8&#8211;14</span></a> que a la vez le pueden hacer m&#225;s sensible a la agresi&#243;n inflamatoria propia de la infecci&#243;n<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0075"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15&#8211;17</span></a>&#46; En relaci&#243;n con la respuesta innata y adaptativa hoy d&#237;a sabemos que el tabaco inhibe algunas de sus funciones clave&#44; incluyendo la respuesta de los receptores tipo Toll 2 &#40;TLR2&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a>&#44; del factor nuclear KB &#40;NF-KB&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0040"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a>&#44; la proliferaci&#243;n de c&#233;lulas CD4 &#40;LTCD4&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12&#44;19</span></a>&#44; la maduraci&#243;n de c&#233;lulas dendr&#237;ticas<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0050"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> y la capacidad de opsonizaci&#243;n y fagocitosis<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a>&#46; Por consiguiente&#44; el tabaco es capaz de alterar la inmunidad frente a la infecci&#243;n&#44; afectando la modulaci&#243;n de las se&#241;ales intra e intercelulares del epitelio y de las c&#233;lulas inmunes&#44; y suprimiendo la activaci&#243;n de importantes elementos de respuesta inmune innata y adaptativa<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17&#44;21</span></a>&#44; quedando perfectamente establecido que el tabaco incrementa la susceptibilidad a la infecci&#243;n bacteriana<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0110"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">22&#44;23</span></a>&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0030">Tabaquismo pasivo y neumon&#237;a</span><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">El tabaquismo pasivo est&#225; considerado un problema epidemiol&#243;gico importante&#46; En el a&#241;o 2004 se realiz&#243; un estudio a nivel internacional con 192 pa&#237;ses evaluados que reflejaba que el 40&#37; de los ni&#241;os&#44; el 33&#37; de los varones no fumadores y 35&#37; de las mujeres no fumadoras eran fumadores pasivos<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0120"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></a>&#46; Exist&#237;an amplias variaciones regionales que se pueden explicar por las diferentes etapas de la epidemia de tabaquismo en las que se encuentra el pa&#237;s encuestado&#44; debido a que el fumador pasivo est&#225; directamente relacionado con las tasas de tabaquismo activo&#46; Los datos de prevalencia en Espa&#241;a lo situaban alrededor del 50&#37; de los adultos&#44; en el a&#241;o 2005<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0125"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span></a>&#44; antes de la entrada en vigor de la ley que&#44; al igual que en la mayor&#237;a de los pa&#237;ses desarrollados&#44; se ha creado para regular el consumo de tabaco en locales p&#250;blicos&#44; que ha conseguido reducir la exposici&#243;n al humo de tabaco en aproximadamente un 20-25&#37;&#44; a expensas del descenso del consumo&#44; no solo en locales de ocio sino tambi&#233;n en lugares de trabajo&#44; pero no en el domicilio&#46; Por todo ello&#44; en los &#250;ltimos a&#241;os ha crecido el inter&#233;s por conocer el efecto del consumo pasivo de tabaco y algunos estudios apuntan que podr&#237;a comportar tambi&#233;n un mayor riesgo de infecciones respiratorias tanto en ni&#241;os&#44; hijos de padres fumadores<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0130"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26&#44;27</span></a>&#44; como en adultos<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28&#44;29</span></a>&#46; Tambi&#233;n en personas ancianas con NAC se ha demostrado que permitir fumar en el domicilio es un importante predictor de p&#233;rdida de salud<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0150"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30</span></a>&#46; De hecho&#44; las lesiones en el epitelio respiratorio&#44; tejido conectivo y endotelio vascular del pulm&#243;n&#44; producidas por el consumo del tabaco pueden producirse&#44; incluso ante bajas concentraciones de humo<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0155"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">31</span></a>&#44; dato que sustenta que su efecto podr&#237;a ser un factor de riesgo importante para el desarrollo de NAC tambi&#233;n en fumadores pasivos&#46;</p><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Tambi&#233;n se ha demostrado en 2 estudios distintos&#44; ambos de base poblacional&#44; caso-control<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0160"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a>&#44; que el tabaquismo pasivo es un FR para desarrollar bacteriemia neumoc&#243;cica en adultos inmunocompetentes&#44; en los que resulta una <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">odds ratio</span> &#40;OR&#41; de 2&#44;6 y un riesgo atribuible &#40;RA&#41; de 31&#37; en sujetos de edad &#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>65 a&#241;os<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28&#44;33</span></a>&#44; y OR de 2&#44;2 y un RA de 13&#37;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28&#44;32</span></a> en mayores de 65 a&#241;os&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Tabaquismo y neumon&#237;a neumoc&#243;cica</span><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">El microorganismo causante de NAC m&#225;s frecuente&#44; independientemente del nivel asistencial y de la gravedad&#44; es <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Streptococcus pneumoniae</span>&#44; que adem&#225;s es el que m&#225;s se ha relacionado con el tabaquismo&#44; especialmente en aquellos pacientes con EPOC&#46; En un estudio <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span> se ha demostrado aumento de la adherencia del <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Streptococcus pneumoniae</span> en las c&#233;lulas epiteliales de la cavidad bucal de fumadores<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0170"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">34</span></a>&#44; que persiste incluso hasta 3 a&#241;os despu&#233;s de abandonar el tabaquismo y que puede suponer mayor grado de colonizaci&#243;n orofar&#237;ngea y mayor posibilidad de NAC&#46;</p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Tambi&#233;n se ha relacionado el h&#225;bito tab&#225;quico con la enfermedad neumoc&#243;cica invasiva &#40;ENI&#41;&#44; cuya etiolog&#237;a en aproximadamente el 80&#37; de los casos es debida a neumon&#237;a<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0175"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span></a>&#46; En este sentido&#44; un estudio realizado por Pastor et al&#46; en 1995 ya observ&#243; dicha asociaci&#243;n&#44; con una OR de 2&#44;6 en fumadores entre 24-64 a&#241;os y una OR de 2&#44;2 en fumadores mayores de 65 a&#241;os&#46; El riesgo atribuido &#40;RA&#41; era de 31&#37; en el primer grupo y de 13&#37; en el segundo grupo<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a>&#46; Otro estudio de base poblacional caso-control<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span></a> tambi&#233;n destaca que fumar es el mayor FR independiente para ENI en adultos inmunocompetentes con una OR<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>4&#44;1 en fumadores activos &#40;RA 51&#37;&#41;&#46; Adem&#225;s este efecto muestra tambi&#233;n dosis-respuesta&#44; ya que disminuye espectacularmente el riesgo 10 a&#241;os despu&#233;s de abandonar el h&#225;bito tab&#225;quico&#44; situ&#225;ndose a niveles de no fumadores&#46;</p><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">La especial relaci&#243;n del tabaquismo activo con el neumococo ha sido puesta de manifiesto por algunos estudios que han demostrado alteraciones del aclaramiento y fagocitosis de <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Streptococcus pneumoniae</span> a nivel pulmonar inducidas por el tabaco<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0180"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a>&#44; as&#237; como la inhibici&#243;n de la actividad antineumoc&#243;cica de algunos p&#233;ptidos antimicrobianos de la inmunidad innata<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0185"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37&#44;38</span></a>&#46; Por tanto&#44; el tabaco altera la inmunidad frente a la infecci&#243;n&#44; especialmente contra algunos microorganismos&#44; entre los que se encuentra <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">S</span>&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">pneumoniae</span>&#44; y parece bien establecido que el tabaquismo activo incrementa por s&#237; mismo el riesgo de presentar una neumon&#237;a&#46;</p><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Sin embargo&#44; la informaci&#243;n disponible no es tan clara respecto a si los fumadores activos con NAC tienen peor pron&#243;stico&#46; Tres estudios longitudinales<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0195"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">39&#8211;41</span></a> que incluyeron grandes cohortes de pacientes encontraron una mayor mortalidad en fumadores con neumon&#237;a&#44; mientras 2 metaan&#225;lisis<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0210"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">42&#44;43</span></a> no encontraron ninguna influencia pron&#243;stica del tabaco&#46; Dos grandes series retrospectivas que estudiaron mortalidad por NAC en relaci&#243;n con el tabaco han mostrado resultados contradictorios<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0220"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">44&#44;45</span></a>&#46; Por &#250;ltimo&#44; un reciente estudio puso de manifiesto que el tabaco fue un factor de riesgo independiente de <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">shock</span> s&#233;ptico por neumon&#237;a neumoc&#243;cica<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0230"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">46</span></a>&#44; y otro epidemiol&#243;gico concluy&#243; que fumar era un determinante independiente de mortalidad en NAC bacteri&#233;mica por <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">S&#46; pneumoniae</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0235"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">47</span></a>&#46; Teniendo en cuenta todos estos datos podemos concluir que existen evidencias que sugieren un peor pron&#243;stico de la neumon&#237;a neumoc&#243;cica en fumadores activos&#44; mientras que las cosas no parecen tan claras si consideramos las NAC en su conjunto&#44; de forma independiente a la etiolog&#237;a&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Tabaquismo y neumon&#237;a por <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Legionella pneumophila</span></span><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Menos frecuente&#44; pero no menos importante&#44; es la NAC causada por <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Legionella pneumophila</span>&#46; Su incidencia var&#237;a&#44; seg&#250;n las series publicadas&#44; desde casos espor&#225;dicos hasta representar el segundo o tercer agente etiol&#243;gico m&#225;s frecuente&#44; dependiendo&#44; entre otros&#44; de factores epidemiol&#243;gicos&#44; de la exhaustividad del m&#233;todo diagn&#243;stico empleado y de la gravedad de la NAC&#46; En estudios de base poblacional es responsable de 1-3&#37; de los microorganismos diagnosticados<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0240"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">48</span></a>&#46; Este tipo de NAC suele incidir en individuos j&#243;venes y&#44; muchas veces&#44; sin enfermedad de base<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0245"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">49</span></a>&#46; En ellos el h&#225;bito tab&#225;quico es el factor de riesgo m&#225;s remarcable&#44; ya que puede suponer un aumento del riesgo del 121&#37; por cada paquete diario de cigarrillos consumido con OR de 3&#44;48<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0250"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">50</span></a>&#44; que puede ser de 7&#44;49 si se analiza en personas sin comorbilidades&#46; Este aumento de riesgo se atribuye a que el deterioro de la mucosa respiratoria y la alteraci&#243;n de los cilios causada por el tabaco dificultan la erradicaci&#243;n del microorganismo del &#225;rbol bronquial y facilitan su entrada en los macr&#243;fagos alveolares con la posterior invasi&#243;n&#44; dependiendo del estado inmunitario del individuo&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Tabaquismo y otros factores de riesgo de neumon&#237;a adquirida en la comunidad</span><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">El consumo de tabaco puede tambi&#233;n favorecer la presencia de enfermedades que a su vez son factores de riesgo conocidos de NAC&#44; como son&#58;<ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0005"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0005"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Enfermedades periodontales directamente relacionadas con la aparici&#243;n de NAC<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0255"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">51</span></a>&#44; habi&#233;ndose demostrado adem&#225;s que una peor higiene oral puede provocar aumento de infecci&#243;n respiratoria<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0260"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">52&#44;53</span></a>&#46; Pero adem&#225;s los fumadores muestran mayor colonizaci&#243;n bacteriana subgingival que los no fumadores&#44; que guarda relaci&#243;n directa con el n&#250;mero de cigarrillos consumidos&#47;d&#237;a&#44; de tal manera que los fumadores de menos de 10 cigarrillos&#47;d&#237;a presentan entre 2&#44;5-6 veces m&#225;s periodontitis que los no fumadores &#40;OR de 2&#44;79&#41;&#44; y si fuman &#62;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>30 cigarrillos&#47;d&#237;a la OR es 5&#44;88&#59; disminuye espectacularmente si abandonan el h&#225;bito&#44; pudiendo llegar a OR de 1&#44;15 al cabo de 11 a&#241;os<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0270"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">54</span></a>&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0010"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Infecciones v&#237;ricas de la v&#237;a a&#233;rea superior&#46; La infecci&#243;n respiratoria de v&#237;a alta &#40;IRVA&#41; se comporta como factor de riesgo de NAC&#44; independientemente de otros factores relacionados<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;7</span></a>&#44; y el tabaquismo influye de manera independiente en la presencia de dicha infecci&#243;n v&#237;rica previa&#46; Blake et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0275"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">55</span></a> han observado en una cohorte de soldados diagnosticados de IRVA que un 22&#44;7&#37; son fumadores vs 16&#37; no fumadores &#40;RR&#58; 1&#44;5&#41;&#46; Tambi&#233;n se ha observado en fumadores una mayor predisposici&#243;n a infecci&#243;n v&#237;rica experimental<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0280"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">56</span></a>&#46;</p></li></ul></p></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Prevenci&#243;n</span><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Hoy en d&#237;a existe suficiente evidencia cient&#237;fica demostrativa de que el consumo activo de tabaco es un importante factor de riesgo de NAC<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0130"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26&#44;28&#44;29&#44;33</span></a>&#44; que por s&#237; solo tiene un efecto directo e independiente sobre el riesgo de NAC pero&#44; adem&#225;s&#44; puede actuar de modo indirecto causando bronquitis cr&#243;nica o EPOC que&#44; a su vez&#44; tambi&#233;n son reconocidos factores de riesgo de NAC<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7&#44;33</span></a>&#46; Por ello&#44; una de las principales acciones para prevenir la NAC es actuar sobre el h&#225;bito tab&#225;quico&#44; aconsejando su abandono&#44; con lo que podemos disminuir el riesgo de NAC un 50&#37; al cabo de 5 a&#241;os<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a>&#46; Adem&#225;s&#44; tambi&#233;n se ha visto reducci&#243;n de la incidencia de ENI un 14&#37; cada a&#241;o<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span></a>&#44; y se ha comprobado que al cabo de 10 a&#241;os el riesgo de ENI se puede situar a igual nivel que en los no fumadores&#46;</p><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Por otro lado cabe recomendar concomitantemente la vacuna antineumoc&#243;cica&#46; De hecho&#44; las sociedades cient&#237;ficas americanas ya proponen el abandono del tabaco y a la vez la vacuna neumoc&#243;cica en pacientes hospitalizados por NAC<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0285"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">57</span></a>&#44; y adem&#225;s recomiendan la vacuna antineumoc&#243;cica para los fumadores activos en la poblaci&#243;n entre 19-64 a&#241;os&#44; independientemente de la presencia de comorbilidad<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0290"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">58</span></a>&#46; Dicha recomendaci&#243;n cobra mayor relevancia en estas personas fumadoras activas&#44; en las que se ha observado una menor tasa de vacunaci&#243;n antigripal y antineumoc&#243;cica respecto a los exfumadores y no fumadores<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0295"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">59</span></a>&#46;</p><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">En la actualidad disponemos de 2 tipos de vacuna&#44; la polisac&#225;rida 23-valente y la vacuna conjugada 13-valente&#46; La primera se utiliza en Espa&#241;a desde el a&#241;o 1999&#44; y al valorar su eficacia algunos estudios no dise&#241;ados para ello han hallado efecto protector<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7&#44;60</span></a>&#44; mientras que ensayos cl&#237;nicos de eficacia frente a ENI no permiten demostrar dicho efecto&#44; y tampoco se puede estimar su eficacia sobre las NAC en general<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0305"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">61</span></a>&#44; por lo que recientemente se recomienda la vacunaci&#243;n antineumoc&#243;cica conjugada 13-valente<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0310"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">62</span></a>&#44; autorizada para adultos en Europa desde octubre del a&#241;o 2011 y en nuestro pa&#237;s en julio de 2012&#46; La principal ventaja respecto a la anterior es que al ser conjugada es capaz de inducir una respuesta inmune T-dependiente que proporciona una mejor respuesta inmune y genera memoria inmunol&#243;gica<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0315"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">63</span></a>&#46; Adem&#225;s se ha descrito que genera respuestas de IgA en las mucosas&#44; que disminuye la colonizaci&#243;n nasofar&#237;ngea por los serotipos presentes en la vacuna&#44; rompiendo el ciclo contagioso&#44; produci&#233;ndose inmunidad de grupo<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0320"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">64</span></a>&#46; Por otro lado&#44; la cobertura de serotipos de la vacuna conjugada 13-valente alcanza hasta el 82&#37; de los productores de NAC en adultos sanos<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0325"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">65</span></a>&#44; por lo que parece evidente que la poblaci&#243;n fumadora debe ser considerada como diana para las estrategias de vacunaci&#243;n antineumoc&#243;cica<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0330"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">66</span></a>&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0055">Conflicto de intereses</span><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Los autores declaran no tener ning&#250;n conflicto de intereses&#46;</p></span></span>"
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          "titulo" => "Tabaquismo y neumon&#237;a por Legionella pneumophila"
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          "titulo" => "Tabaquismo y otros factores de riesgo de neumon&#237;a adquirida en la comunidad"
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        "titulo" => "Resumen"
        "resumen" => "<p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">En estudios recientes ha quedando quedado perfectamente establecido que el tabaco incrementa la susceptibilidad a la infecci&#243;n bacteriana pulmonar&#44; incluso en fumadores pasivos&#46; Este efecto muestra tambi&#233;n dosis-respuesta&#44; ya que disminuye espectacularmente el riesgo 10 a&#241;os despu&#233;s de abandonar el h&#225;bito tab&#225;quico&#44; situ&#225;ndose a niveles de no fumadores&#46;</p><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Streptococcus pneumoniae</span> es el microorganismo causante de neumon&#237;a adquirida en la comunidad &#40;NAC&#41; que m&#225;s se ha relacionado con el tabaquismo&#44; especialmente en situaciones de enfermedad neumoc&#243;cica invasiva y shock s&#233;ptico&#46;</p><p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Su influencia sobre la evoluci&#243;n de la neumon&#237;a no parece clara&#44; aunque existen evidencias que sugieren un peor pron&#243;stico de la neumon&#237;a neumoc&#243;cica&#46;</p><p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">En NAC causadas por <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Legionella pneumophila</span> tambi&#233;n se ha observado que el h&#225;bito tab&#225;quico es el factor de riesgo m&#225;s remarcable&#44; ya que puede suponer un aumento del riesgo del 121&#37; por cada paquete diario de cigarrillos consumidos&#46;</p><p id="spar0025" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Por otro lado&#44; el consumo de tabaco puede tambi&#233;n favorecer la presencia de enfermedades que a su vez son factores de riesgo conocidos de NAC&#44; como enfermedades periodontales e infecciones v&#237;ricas de la v&#237;a a&#233;rea superior&#46;</p><p id="spar0030" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Como medida preventiva&#44; si bien cabe proponer el abandono del tabaco&#44; tambi&#233;n es recomendable la vacuna neumoc&#243;cica&#44; independientemente de la presencia de comorbilidad&#46;</p>"
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        "titulo" => "Abstract"
        "resumen" => "<p id="spar0035" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Recent studies have left absolutely no doubt that tobacco increases susceptibility to bacterial lung infection&#44; even in passive smokers&#46; This relationship also shows a dose-response effect&#44; since the risk reduces spectacularly 10 years after giving up smoking&#44; returning to the level of non-smokers&#46;</p><p id="spar0040" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Streptococcus pneumoniae</span> is the causative microorganism responsible for community-acquired pneumonia &#40;CAP&#41; most frequently associated with smoking&#44; particularly in invasive pneumococcal disease and septic shock&#46;</p><p id="spar0045" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">It is not clear how it acts on the progress of pneumonia&#44; but there is evidence to suggest that the prognosis for pneumococcal pneumonia is worse&#46;</p><p id="spar0050" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">In CAP caused by <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Legionella pneumophila</span>&#44; it has also been observed that smoking is the most important risk factor&#44; with the risk rising 121&#37; for each pack of cigarettes smoked a day&#46;</p><p id="spar0055" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Tobacco use may also favor diseases that are also known risk factors for CAP&#44; such as periodontal disease and upper respiratory viral infections&#46;</p><p id="spar0060" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">By way of prevention&#44; while giving up smoking should always be proposed&#44; the use of the pneumococcal vaccine is also recommended&#44; regardless of the presence of other comorbidities&#46;</p>"
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                      "titulo" => "Inhibition by cigarette smoke of nuclear factor-kB&#8211;dependent response to bacteria in the airway"
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Neumonía adquirida en la comunidad en fumadores
Community-acquired Pneumonia Among Smokers
Jordi Almiralla,
Corresponding author
jalmirall@csdm.cat

Autor para correspondencia.
, José Blanquerb, Salvador Belloc
a Servicio de Cuidados Intensivos, Hospital de Mataró, Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona, CIBERES, Barcelona, España
b Cuidados Intensivos Respiratorios, Hospital Clínico Universitario, INCLIVA, Valencia, España
c Servicio de Neumología, Hospital Universitario Miguel Servet, CIBERES, Zaragoza, España
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pero el pulm&#243;n sano dispone de suficientes mecanismos de defensa para prevenir su invasi&#243;n &#40;aclaramiento mucociliar efectivo&#44; barrera epitelial &#237;ntegra&#44; macr&#243;fagos alveolares que pueden reconocer y fagocitar microorganismos invasores&#41;&#46; Cualquier fallo de estos mecanismos puede producir diseminaci&#243;n de microorganismos en el &#225;rbol bronquial y desencadenar neumon&#237;a adquirida en la comunidad &#40;NAC&#41;&#44; que sigue siendo una causa importante de morbimortalidad en los pa&#237;ses desarrollados&#46; En la poblaci&#243;n general adulta la incidencia anual oscila entre 1&#44;6 y 13&#44;4 casos por 1&#46;000 habitantes&#44; con una tasa de hospitalizaci&#243;n entre el 22 y el 51&#37; y una letalidad del 3 al 24&#37;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#8211;4</span></a> que no se ha modificado en los &#250;ltimos a&#241;os&#44; a pesar de las medidas preventivas aplicadas<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a>&#46;</p><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">Tabaquismo y neumon&#237;a</span><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">El factor de riesgo m&#225;s importante de NAC es la edad&#46; Tanto es as&#237; que la incidencia se triplica o cuadriplica cuando la edad es &#62;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>65 a&#241;os<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a>&#46; La causa no est&#225; clara&#44; pero podr&#237;a ser multifactorial&#44; ya sea debida a inmunosenescencia por debilidad inmunitaria &#40;innata y adaptativa&#41; o por existir en este grupo de edad una mayor incidencia de aspiraciones asintom&#225;ticas<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> o converger otros factores de riesgo &#40;FR&#41; que en personas m&#225;s j&#243;venes no adquieren significaci&#243;n estad&#237;stica&#44; pero en grupos de mayor edad cobran protagonismo&#44; posiblemente por efecto sumatorio&#46; Uno de ellos puede ser el tabaquismo&#44; que es el principal FR de EPOC&#44; y esta a su vez es uno de los principales FR de NAC&#46; Por ello&#44; muchas veces resulta dif&#237;cil discernir el peso espec&#237;fico que pueda tener el consumo de tabaco en la aparici&#243;n de la NAC&#44; sobre todo teniendo en cuenta que fumar se asocia a menor estatus socioecon&#243;mico&#44; deficiente alimentaci&#243;n&#44; mayor consumo de alcohol y menor actividad f&#237;sica&#44; que a su vez tambi&#233;n son FR de infecci&#243;n respiratoria<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a>&#46;</p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Pero en la actualidad disponemos de suficientes estudios en los que&#44; mediante an&#225;lisis estad&#237;stico con modelos de regresi&#243;n log&#237;stica&#44; se puede diferenciar cualquier factor de confusi&#243;n&#44; permitiendo resaltar que el tabaco&#44; por s&#237; solo&#44; incrementa el riesgo de neumon&#237;a&#46; En este sentido se ha publicado un estudio de base poblacional<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;3</span></a> en el que se demuestra incremento del riesgo de NAC en fumadores&#44; que adem&#225;s guarda relaci&#243;n directa con la duraci&#243;n del consumo de tabaco y con la cantidad de cigarrillos consumidos&#46; 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la maduraci&#243;n de c&#233;lulas dendr&#237;ticas<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0050"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> y la capacidad de opsonizaci&#243;n y fagocitosis<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a>&#46; Por consiguiente&#44; el tabaco es capaz de alterar la inmunidad frente a la infecci&#243;n&#44; afectando la modulaci&#243;n de las se&#241;ales intra e intercelulares del epitelio y de las c&#233;lulas inmunes&#44; y suprimiendo la activaci&#243;n de importantes elementos de respuesta inmune innata y adaptativa<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17&#44;21</span></a>&#44; quedando perfectamente establecido que el tabaco incrementa la susceptibilidad a la infecci&#243;n bacteriana<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0110"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">22&#44;23</span></a>&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0030">Tabaquismo pasivo y neumon&#237;a</span><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">El tabaquismo pasivo est&#225; considerado un problema epidemiol&#243;gico importante&#46; En el a&#241;o 2004 se realiz&#243; un estudio a nivel internacional con 192 pa&#237;ses evaluados que reflejaba que el 40&#37; de los ni&#241;os&#44; el 33&#37; de los varones no fumadores y 35&#37; de las mujeres no fumadoras eran fumadores pasivos<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0120"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></a>&#46; Exist&#237;an amplias variaciones regionales que se pueden explicar por las diferentes etapas de la epidemia de tabaquismo en las que se encuentra el pa&#237;s encuestado&#44; debido a que el fumador pasivo est&#225; directamente relacionado con las tasas de tabaquismo activo&#46; Los datos de prevalencia en Espa&#241;a lo situaban alrededor del 50&#37; de los adultos&#44; en el a&#241;o 2005<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0125"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span></a>&#44; antes de la entrada en vigor de la ley que&#44; al igual que en la mayor&#237;a de los pa&#237;ses desarrollados&#44; se ha creado para regular el consumo de tabaco en locales p&#250;blicos&#44; que ha conseguido reducir la exposici&#243;n al humo de tabaco en aproximadamente un 20-25&#37;&#44; a expensas del descenso del consumo&#44; no solo en locales de ocio sino tambi&#233;n en lugares de trabajo&#44; pero no en el domicilio&#46; Por todo ello&#44; en los &#250;ltimos a&#241;os ha crecido el inter&#233;s por conocer el efecto del consumo pasivo de tabaco y algunos estudios apuntan que podr&#237;a comportar tambi&#233;n un mayor riesgo de infecciones respiratorias tanto en ni&#241;os&#44; hijos de padres fumadores<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0130"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26&#44;27</span></a>&#44; como en adultos<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28&#44;29</span></a>&#46; Tambi&#233;n en personas ancianas con NAC se ha demostrado que permitir fumar en el domicilio es un importante predictor de p&#233;rdida de salud<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0150"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30</span></a>&#46; De hecho&#44; las lesiones en el epitelio respiratorio&#44; tejido conectivo y endotelio vascular del pulm&#243;n&#44; producidas por el consumo del tabaco pueden producirse&#44; incluso ante bajas concentraciones de humo<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0155"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">31</span></a>&#44; dato que sustenta que su efecto podr&#237;a ser un factor de riesgo importante para el desarrollo de NAC tambi&#233;n en fumadores pasivos&#46;</p><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Tambi&#233;n se ha demostrado en 2 estudios distintos&#44; ambos de base poblacional&#44; caso-control<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0160"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a>&#44; que el tabaquismo pasivo es un FR para desarrollar bacteriemia neumoc&#243;cica en adultos inmunocompetentes&#44; en los que resulta una <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">odds ratio</span> &#40;OR&#41; de 2&#44;6 y un riesgo atribuible &#40;RA&#41; de 31&#37; en sujetos de edad &#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>65 a&#241;os<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28&#44;33</span></a>&#44; y OR de 2&#44;2 y un RA de 13&#37;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28&#44;32</span></a> en mayores de 65 a&#241;os&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Tabaquismo y neumon&#237;a neumoc&#243;cica</span><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">El microorganismo causante de NAC m&#225;s frecuente&#44; independientemente del nivel asistencial y de la gravedad&#44; es <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Streptococcus pneumoniae</span>&#44; que adem&#225;s es el que m&#225;s se ha relacionado con el tabaquismo&#44; especialmente en aquellos pacientes con EPOC&#46; En un estudio <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span> se ha demostrado aumento de la adherencia del <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Streptococcus pneumoniae</span> en las c&#233;lulas epiteliales de la cavidad bucal de fumadores<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0170"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">34</span></a>&#44; que persiste incluso hasta 3 a&#241;os despu&#233;s de abandonar el tabaquismo y que puede suponer mayor grado de colonizaci&#243;n orofar&#237;ngea y mayor posibilidad de NAC&#46;</p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Tambi&#233;n se ha relacionado el h&#225;bito tab&#225;quico con la enfermedad neumoc&#243;cica invasiva &#40;ENI&#41;&#44; cuya etiolog&#237;a en aproximadamente el 80&#37; de los casos es debida a neumon&#237;a<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0175"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span></a>&#46; En este sentido&#44; un estudio realizado por Pastor et al&#46; en 1995 ya observ&#243; dicha asociaci&#243;n&#44; con una OR de 2&#44;6 en fumadores entre 24-64 a&#241;os y una OR de 2&#44;2 en fumadores mayores de 65 a&#241;os&#46; El riesgo atribuido &#40;RA&#41; era de 31&#37; en el primer grupo y de 13&#37; en el segundo grupo<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a>&#46; Otro estudio de base poblacional caso-control<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span></a> tambi&#233;n destaca que fumar es el mayor FR independiente para ENI en adultos inmunocompetentes con una OR<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>4&#44;1 en fumadores activos &#40;RA 51&#37;&#41;&#46; Adem&#225;s este efecto muestra tambi&#233;n dosis-respuesta&#44; ya que disminuye espectacularmente el riesgo 10 a&#241;os despu&#233;s de abandonar el h&#225;bito tab&#225;quico&#44; situ&#225;ndose a niveles de no fumadores&#46;</p><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">La especial relaci&#243;n del tabaquismo activo con el neumococo ha sido puesta de manifiesto por algunos estudios que han demostrado alteraciones del aclaramiento y fagocitosis de <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Streptococcus pneumoniae</span> a nivel pulmonar inducidas por el tabaco<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0180"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a>&#44; as&#237; como la inhibici&#243;n de la actividad antineumoc&#243;cica de algunos p&#233;ptidos antimicrobianos de la inmunidad innata<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0185"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37&#44;38</span></a>&#46; Por tanto&#44; el tabaco altera la inmunidad frente a la infecci&#243;n&#44; especialmente contra algunos microorganismos&#44; entre los que se encuentra <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">S</span>&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">pneumoniae</span>&#44; y parece bien establecido que el tabaquismo activo incrementa por s&#237; mismo el riesgo de presentar una neumon&#237;a&#46;</p><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Sin embargo&#44; la informaci&#243;n disponible no es tan clara respecto a si los fumadores activos con NAC tienen peor pron&#243;stico&#46; Tres estudios longitudinales<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0195"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">39&#8211;41</span></a> que incluyeron grandes cohortes de pacientes encontraron una mayor mortalidad en fumadores con neumon&#237;a&#44; mientras 2 metaan&#225;lisis<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0210"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">42&#44;43</span></a> no encontraron ninguna influencia pron&#243;stica del tabaco&#46; Dos grandes series retrospectivas que estudiaron mortalidad por NAC en relaci&#243;n con el tabaco han mostrado resultados contradictorios<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0220"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">44&#44;45</span></a>&#46; Por &#250;ltimo&#44; un reciente estudio puso de manifiesto que el tabaco fue un factor de riesgo independiente de <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">shock</span> s&#233;ptico por neumon&#237;a neumoc&#243;cica<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0230"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">46</span></a>&#44; y otro epidemiol&#243;gico concluy&#243; que fumar era un determinante independiente de mortalidad en NAC bacteri&#233;mica por <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">S&#46; pneumoniae</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0235"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">47</span></a>&#46; Teniendo en cuenta todos estos datos podemos concluir que existen evidencias que sugieren un peor pron&#243;stico de la neumon&#237;a neumoc&#243;cica en fumadores activos&#44; mientras que las cosas no parecen tan claras si consideramos las NAC en su conjunto&#44; de forma independiente a la etiolog&#237;a&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Tabaquismo y neumon&#237;a por <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Legionella pneumophila</span></span><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Menos frecuente&#44; pero no menos importante&#44; es la NAC causada por <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Legionella pneumophila</span>&#46; Su incidencia var&#237;a&#44; seg&#250;n las series publicadas&#44; desde casos espor&#225;dicos hasta representar el segundo o tercer agente etiol&#243;gico m&#225;s frecuente&#44; dependiendo&#44; entre otros&#44; de factores epidemiol&#243;gicos&#44; de la exhaustividad del m&#233;todo diagn&#243;stico empleado y de la gravedad de la NAC&#46; En estudios de base poblacional es responsable de 1-3&#37; de los microorganismos diagnosticados<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0240"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">48</span></a>&#46; Este tipo de NAC suele incidir en individuos j&#243;venes y&#44; muchas veces&#44; sin enfermedad de base<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0245"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">49</span></a>&#46; En ellos el h&#225;bito tab&#225;quico es el factor de riesgo m&#225;s remarcable&#44; ya que puede suponer un aumento del riesgo del 121&#37; por cada paquete diario de cigarrillos consumido con OR de 3&#44;48<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0250"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">50</span></a>&#44; que puede ser de 7&#44;49 si se analiza en personas sin comorbilidades&#46; Este aumento de riesgo se atribuye a que el deterioro de la mucosa respiratoria y la alteraci&#243;n de los cilios causada por el tabaco dificultan la erradicaci&#243;n del microorganismo del &#225;rbol bronquial y facilitan su entrada en los macr&#243;fagos alveolares con la posterior invasi&#243;n&#44; dependiendo del estado inmunitario del individuo&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Tabaquismo y otros factores de riesgo de neumon&#237;a adquirida en la comunidad</span><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">El consumo de tabaco puede tambi&#233;n favorecer la presencia de enfermedades que a su vez son factores de riesgo conocidos de NAC&#44; como son&#58;<ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0005"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0005"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Enfermedades periodontales directamente relacionadas con la aparici&#243;n de NAC<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0255"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">51</span></a>&#44; habi&#233;ndose demostrado adem&#225;s que una peor higiene oral puede provocar aumento de infecci&#243;n respiratoria<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0260"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">52&#44;53</span></a>&#46; Pero adem&#225;s los fumadores muestran mayor colonizaci&#243;n bacteriana subgingival que los no fumadores&#44; que guarda relaci&#243;n directa con el n&#250;mero de cigarrillos consumidos&#47;d&#237;a&#44; de tal manera que los fumadores de menos de 10 cigarrillos&#47;d&#237;a presentan entre 2&#44;5-6 veces m&#225;s periodontitis que los no fumadores &#40;OR de 2&#44;79&#41;&#44; y si fuman &#62;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>30 cigarrillos&#47;d&#237;a la OR es 5&#44;88&#59; disminuye espectacularmente si abandonan el h&#225;bito&#44; pudiendo llegar a OR de 1&#44;15 al cabo de 11 a&#241;os<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0270"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">54</span></a>&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0010"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Infecciones v&#237;ricas de la v&#237;a a&#233;rea superior&#46; La infecci&#243;n respiratoria de v&#237;a alta &#40;IRVA&#41; se comporta como factor de riesgo de NAC&#44; independientemente de otros factores relacionados<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;7</span></a>&#44; y el tabaquismo influye de manera independiente en la presencia de dicha infecci&#243;n v&#237;rica previa&#46; Blake et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0275"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">55</span></a> han observado en una cohorte de soldados diagnosticados de IRVA que un 22&#44;7&#37; son fumadores vs 16&#37; no fumadores &#40;RR&#58; 1&#44;5&#41;&#46; Tambi&#233;n se ha observado en fumadores una mayor predisposici&#243;n a infecci&#243;n v&#237;rica experimental<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0280"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">56</span></a>&#46;</p></li></ul></p></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Prevenci&#243;n</span><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Hoy en d&#237;a existe suficiente evidencia cient&#237;fica demostrativa de que el consumo activo de tabaco es un importante factor de riesgo de NAC<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0130"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26&#44;28&#44;29&#44;33</span></a>&#44; que por s&#237; solo tiene un efecto directo e independiente sobre el riesgo de NAC pero&#44; adem&#225;s&#44; puede actuar de modo indirecto causando bronquitis cr&#243;nica o EPOC que&#44; a su vez&#44; tambi&#233;n son reconocidos factores de riesgo de NAC<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7&#44;33</span></a>&#46; Por ello&#44; una de las principales acciones para prevenir la NAC es actuar sobre el h&#225;bito tab&#225;quico&#44; aconsejando su abandono&#44; con lo que podemos disminuir el riesgo de NAC un 50&#37; al cabo de 5 a&#241;os<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a>&#46; Adem&#225;s&#44; tambi&#233;n se ha visto reducci&#243;n de la incidencia de ENI un 14&#37; cada a&#241;o<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span></a>&#44; y se ha comprobado que al cabo de 10 a&#241;os el riesgo de ENI se puede situar a igual nivel que en los no fumadores&#46;</p><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Por otro lado cabe recomendar concomitantemente la vacuna antineumoc&#243;cica&#46; De hecho&#44; las sociedades cient&#237;ficas americanas ya proponen el abandono del tabaco y a la vez la vacuna neumoc&#243;cica en pacientes hospitalizados por NAC<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0285"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">57</span></a>&#44; y adem&#225;s recomiendan la vacuna antineumoc&#243;cica para los fumadores activos en la poblaci&#243;n entre 19-64 a&#241;os&#44; independientemente de la presencia de comorbilidad<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0290"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">58</span></a>&#46; Dicha recomendaci&#243;n cobra mayor relevancia en estas personas fumadoras activas&#44; en las que se ha observado una menor tasa de vacunaci&#243;n antigripal y antineumoc&#243;cica respecto a los exfumadores y no fumadores<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0295"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">59</span></a>&#46;</p><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">En la actualidad disponemos de 2 tipos de vacuna&#44; la polisac&#225;rida 23-valente y la vacuna conjugada 13-valente&#46; La primera se utiliza en Espa&#241;a desde el a&#241;o 1999&#44; y al valorar su eficacia algunos estudios no dise&#241;ados para ello han hallado efecto protector<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7&#44;60</span></a>&#44; mientras que ensayos cl&#237;nicos de eficacia frente a ENI no permiten demostrar dicho efecto&#44; y tampoco se puede estimar su eficacia sobre las NAC en general<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0305"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">61</span></a>&#44; por lo que recientemente se recomienda la vacunaci&#243;n antineumoc&#243;cica conjugada 13-valente<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0310"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">62</span></a>&#44; autorizada para adultos en Europa desde octubre del a&#241;o 2011 y en nuestro pa&#237;s en julio de 2012&#46; La principal ventaja respecto a la anterior es que al ser conjugada es capaz de inducir una respuesta inmune T-dependiente que proporciona una mejor respuesta inmune y genera memoria inmunol&#243;gica<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0315"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">63</span></a>&#46; Adem&#225;s se ha descrito que genera respuestas de IgA en las mucosas&#44; que disminuye la colonizaci&#243;n nasofar&#237;ngea por los serotipos presentes en la vacuna&#44; rompiendo el ciclo contagioso&#44; produci&#233;ndose inmunidad de grupo<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0320"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">64</span></a>&#46; Por otro lado&#44; la cobertura de serotipos de la vacuna conjugada 13-valente alcanza hasta el 82&#37; de los productores de NAC en adultos sanos<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0325"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">65</span></a>&#44; por lo que parece evidente que la poblaci&#243;n fumadora debe ser considerada como diana para las estrategias de vacunaci&#243;n antineumoc&#243;cica<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0330"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">66</span></a>&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0055">Conflicto de intereses</span><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Los autores declaran no tener ning&#250;n conflicto de intereses&#46;</p></span></span>"
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        "resumen" => "<p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">En estudios recientes ha quedando quedado perfectamente establecido que el tabaco incrementa la susceptibilidad a la infecci&#243;n bacteriana pulmonar&#44; incluso en fumadores pasivos&#46; Este efecto muestra tambi&#233;n dosis-respuesta&#44; ya que disminuye espectacularmente el riesgo 10 a&#241;os despu&#233;s de abandonar el h&#225;bito tab&#225;quico&#44; situ&#225;ndose a niveles de no fumadores&#46;</p><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Streptococcus pneumoniae</span> es el microorganismo causante de neumon&#237;a adquirida en la comunidad &#40;NAC&#41; que m&#225;s se ha relacionado con el tabaquismo&#44; especialmente en situaciones de enfermedad neumoc&#243;cica invasiva y shock s&#233;ptico&#46;</p><p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Su influencia sobre la evoluci&#243;n de la neumon&#237;a no parece clara&#44; aunque existen evidencias que sugieren un peor pron&#243;stico de la neumon&#237;a neumoc&#243;cica&#46;</p><p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">En NAC causadas por <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Legionella pneumophila</span> tambi&#233;n se ha observado que el h&#225;bito tab&#225;quico es el factor de riesgo m&#225;s remarcable&#44; ya que puede suponer un aumento del riesgo del 121&#37; por cada paquete diario de cigarrillos consumidos&#46;</p><p id="spar0025" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Por otro lado&#44; el consumo de tabaco puede tambi&#233;n favorecer la presencia de enfermedades que a su vez son factores de riesgo conocidos de NAC&#44; como enfermedades periodontales e infecciones v&#237;ricas de la v&#237;a a&#233;rea superior&#46;</p><p id="spar0030" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Como medida preventiva&#44; si bien cabe proponer el abandono del tabaco&#44; tambi&#233;n es recomendable la vacuna neumoc&#243;cica&#44; independientemente de la presencia de comorbilidad&#46;</p>"
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      "en" => array:2 [
        "titulo" => "Abstract"
        "resumen" => "<p id="spar0035" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Recent studies have left absolutely no doubt that tobacco increases susceptibility to bacterial lung infection&#44; even in passive smokers&#46; This relationship also shows a dose-response effect&#44; since the risk reduces spectacularly 10 years after giving up smoking&#44; returning to the level of non-smokers&#46;</p><p id="spar0040" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Streptococcus pneumoniae</span> is the causative microorganism responsible for community-acquired pneumonia &#40;CAP&#41; most frequently associated with smoking&#44; particularly in invasive pneumococcal disease and septic shock&#46;</p><p id="spar0045" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">It is not clear how it acts on the progress of pneumonia&#44; but there is evidence to suggest that the prognosis for pneumococcal pneumonia is worse&#46;</p><p id="spar0050" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">In CAP caused by <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Legionella pneumophila</span>&#44; it has also been observed that smoking is the most important risk factor&#44; with the risk rising 121&#37; for each pack of cigarettes smoked a day&#46;</p><p id="spar0055" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Tobacco use may also favor diseases that are also known risk factors for CAP&#44; such as periodontal disease and upper respiratory viral infections&#46;</p><p id="spar0060" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">By way of prevention&#44; while giving up smoking should always be proposed&#44; the use of the pneumococcal vaccine is also recommended&#44; regardless of the presence of other comorbidities&#46;</p>"
      ]
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ISSN: 03002896
Original language: Spanish
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