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hemorragia digestiva alta&#44; neumon&#237;a nosocomial&#44; choque o paro card&#237;aco y &#8220;fallo en el rescate&#8221; &#40;muerte de un paciente asociada a una complicaci&#243;n&#41;&#8212;y de la estancia hospitalaria&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Cho et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib41"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span></a>&#44; en un estudio retrospectivo que incluy&#243; a 124&#46;204 pacientes&#44; concluyeron que la sobrecarga de trabajo para el equipo de enfermer&#237;a contribuye a que se presenten errores en las medidas de control de infecciones&#44; como la desinfecci&#243;n de las manos y el aislamiento de pacientes infectados por organismos multirresistentes&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">La participaci&#243;n de terapeutas respiratorios facilita el &#233;xito de los programas educativos y de la implementaci&#243;n de protocolos dirigidos a disminuir la incidencia de NAV<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib42"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">42</span></a>&#46; Se recomienda tener una ratio enfermera&#58;paciente de 1&#58;1&#46; Adem&#225;s&#44; los terapeutas respiratorios deben intervenir en la UCI con el objetivo de compartir responsabilidades y trabajar en equipo&#46;</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Evitar los traslados intrahospitalarios innecesarios</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A menudo es necesario el traslado de los pacientes con VM desde la UCI a otras &#225;reas del hospital para la realizaci&#243;n de pruebas diagn&#243;sticas y terap&#233;uticas&#46; Los pacientes pueden permanecer en posici&#243;n supina durante largos per&#237;odos de tiempo y las tubuladuras del respirador son manipuladas a menudo&#44; lo que facilita la aspiraci&#243;n de secreciones contaminadas&#46; El traslado intrahospitalario de pacientes con VM aumenta el riesgo de desarrollar NAV&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Al menos 2 estudios describen que&#44; de los pacientes que tuvieron como m&#237;nimo un traslado fuera de la UCI&#44; el 24&#8211;26&#37; present&#243; NAV&#44; mientras que entre los pacientes no trasladados &#233;sta ocurri&#243; en un 4&#8211;10&#37; &#40;p&#61;0&#44;001&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib43"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">43&#44;44</span></a>&#46; A pesar de todo&#44; no se ha establecido la causa fisiopatol&#243;gica que explica estos hallazgos&#46; Se recomienda que&#44; cuando sea necesario el traslado de estos pacientes&#44; se tomen medidas preventivas&#44; tales como suspender la nutrici&#243;n enteral 4<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h antes del traslado&#44; evitar el desplazamiento de condensaciones hacia la v&#237;a a&#233;rea inferior al manipular las tubuladuras del respirador y&#44; si no hay contraindicaciones&#44; trasladar al paciente en posici&#243;n semisentado&#46;</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Uso de la ventilaci&#243;n mec&#225;nica no invasiva &#40;VMNI&#41;</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Los pacientes intubados tienen hasta 21 veces m&#225;s riesgo de adquirir una neumon&#237;a nosocomial que los pacientes sin v&#237;a a&#233;rea artificial<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib45"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">45</span></a>&#46; Adem&#225;s de la depresi&#243;n de los mecanismos de defensa del paciente&#44; la inserci&#243;n de un tubo endotraqueal es una maniobra invasiva que puede producir lesiones en la mucosa traqueal y anular el reflejo tus&#237;geno&#46; Esto lleva a la acumulaci&#243;n de secreciones subgl&#243;ticas que generan in&#243;culos bacterianos y facilitan su entrada al pulm&#243;n<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib46"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">46&#8211;48</span></a>&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Las gu&#237;as de la American Thoracic Society&#47;Infectious Disease Society of America recomiendan la VMNI como alternativa para los pacientes con exacerbaciones agudas de enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva cr&#243;nica o insuficiencia respiratoria hipox&#233;mica&#44; y para algunos pacientes inmunodeprimidos con insuficiencia respiratoria&#44; infiltrados pulmonares y fiebre&#46; La evidencia indica que se produce una disminuci&#243;n de la incidencia de neumon&#237;a nosocomial y de la mortalidad<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;49&#44;50</span></a>&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">La utilizaci&#243;n de la VMNI para evitar la reintubaci&#243;n posterior a una extubaci&#243;n fallida es una medida cuestionada&#46; En un estudio multic&#233;ntrico realizado en 37 centros de 8 pa&#237;ses&#44; se demostr&#243; que la aplicaci&#243;n de VMNI a pacientes con extubaci&#243;n fallida no evit&#243; la necesidad de reintubaci&#243;n ni redujo la mortalidad&#46; Sin embargo&#44; el tiempo de reintubaci&#243;n fue mayor en los pacientes tratados con VMNI<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib51"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">51</span></a>&#46; A pesar de esto&#44; puede ser una alternativa para la extubaci&#243;n en pacientes con hipercapnia<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib52"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">52&#8211;55</span></a>&#46;</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Desconexi&#243;n temprana de la ventilaci&#243;n mec&#225;nica</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Aunque no siempre es posible evitar la intubaci&#243;n endotraqueal&#44; debe haber una estrategia para retirarla&#46; La reducci&#243;n del tiempo de VM tiene la capacidad de reducir la incidencia de NAV de manera importante y disminuir los costes<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib56"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">56&#44;57</span></a>&#46; Estudios no controlados han evidenciado que el seguimiento de un protocolo dirigido a la extubaci&#243;n temprana de los pacientes ventilados disminuye la duraci&#243;n de la VM<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib58"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">58&#8211;61</span></a>&#46; Marelich et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib42"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">42</span></a> publicaron los resultados de un ensayo cl&#237;nico controlado en 385 pacientes donde los terapeutas respiratorios y enfermeras aplicaron un protocolo para la extubaci&#243;n temprana&#44; el cual permiti&#243; reducir el tiempo de VM en 2&#44;33 d&#237;as&#46; Ese mismo a&#241;o&#44; se public&#243; un metaan&#225;lisis donde se recomendaba la utilizaci&#243;n de protocolos de desconexi&#243;n temprana de la VM con la participaci&#243;n de enfermeras y terapeutas respiratorios en su implementaci&#243;n<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib62"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">62</span></a>&#46; Estas estrategias&#8212;interrupci&#243;n diaria de la sedaci&#243;n &#40;a pesar de ser una medida farmacol&#243;gica&#41; y seguimiento de un protocolo de extubaci&#243;n temprana&#8212;han demostrado acortar el tiempo de la VM<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib42"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">42&#44;62&#8211;65</span></a>&#46;</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Intubaci&#243;n orotraqueal&#47;sonda orog&#225;strica</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Est&#225; demostrado que la inserci&#243;n de sondas o tubos que impidan el drenaje de los senos paranasales durante m&#225;s de 48<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h favorece la aparici&#243;n de sinusitis nosocomial<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib66"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">66&#44;67</span></a>&#46; Holzapfel et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib68"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">68</span></a> demostraron que&#44; comparada con la intubaci&#243;n nasotraqueal&#44; la intubaci&#243;n orotraqueal se asociaba a una menor incidencia de NAV&#46; Se recomienda la utilizaci&#243;n de la v&#237;a orofar&#237;ngea para la intubaci&#243;n endotraqueal y la inserci&#243;n de sondas orog&#225;stricas&#44; dada la disminuci&#243;n de la incidencia de sinusitis y de NAV<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib69"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">69&#8211;72</span></a>&#46; Un estudio cl&#237;nico controlado demostr&#243; que la b&#250;squeda sistem&#225;tica de sinusitis maxilar en los pacientes intubados por v&#237;a nasotraqueal podr&#237;a disminuir la incidencia de NAV<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib72"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">72</span></a>&#46; Sin embargo&#44; no se recomienda la b&#250;squeda sistem&#225;tica de sinusitis en pacientes con intubaci&#243;n orotraqueal&#44; ya que la literatura m&#233;dica no es concluyente<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib67"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">67&#44;73</span></a>&#46;</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Prevenci&#243;n de la formaci&#243;n de biofilme o biocapa</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">En 1986 Sottile et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib74"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">74</span></a> describieron la presencia del biofilme o biocapa&#44; compuesto por un agregado de bacterias formado en el interior del tubo endotraqueal que protege a los organismos de la acci&#243;n de los antibi&#243;ticos y de las defensas del paciente&#46; Feldman et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib75"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">75</span></a> estudiaron la colonizaci&#243;n de los tubos endotraqueales de pacientes con VM y encontraron que todos los tubos ten&#237;an una biocapa en el tercio distal&#46; Adair et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib76"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">76</span></a> investigaron la resistencia antibi&#243;tica de la biocapa del tubo endotraqueal y los organismos pulmonares en la NAV&#44; y concluyeron que el 70&#37; de los pacientes con NAV ten&#237;a los mismos organismos en la biocapa del tubo y en las secreciones traqueales&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Otra estrategia consiste en evitar o reducir la formaci&#243;n de la biocapa&#44; para lo cual se han dise&#241;ado tubos endotraqueales recubiertos de plata<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib77"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">77</span></a>&#46; La plata previene la formaci&#243;n de la biocapa&#44; tiene actividad bactericida&#44; reduce la carga bacteriana y disminuye la inflamaci&#243;n<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib77"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">77</span></a>&#46; Rello et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib78"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">78</span></a> informaron de que la utilizaci&#243;n del tubo endotraqueal recubierto de plata es segura&#44; retrasa la colonizaci&#243;n del tubo endotraqueal&#44; reduce la formaci&#243;n de la biocapa y disminuye la carga bacteriana&#44; y concluyeron que se requieren estudios cl&#237;nicos controlados para establecer la eficacia del dispositivo en la prevenci&#243;n de la NAV&#46; En noviembre de 2007&#44; la Food and Drug Administration autoriz&#243; la venta del tubo endotraqueal recubierto de plata&#46; En un ensayo cl&#237;nico controlado con 2&#46;003 pacientes intubados durante m&#225;s de 24<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h&#44; Kollef et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib79"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">79</span></a> concluyeron que aquellos en quienes se utiliz&#243; el tubo endotraqueal recubierto de plata tuvieron una incidencia menor de NAV comprobada microbiol&#243;gicamente &#40;p&#61;0&#44;03&#41;&#46; Adem&#225;s&#44; se retras&#243; el desarrollo de NAV con el tubo endotraqueal recubierto de plata cuando se compar&#243; con un tubo similar sin plata &#40;p&#61;0&#44;005&#41;&#46;</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Drenaje de secreciones subgl&#243;ticas</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Uno de los mecanismos principales para el desarrollo de NAV es la colonizaci&#243;n bacteriana de la orofaringe y la aspiraci&#243;n de secreciones subgl&#243;ticas<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib80"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">80</span></a>&#46; La presencia del tubo endotraqueal lleva a la acumulaci&#243;n de secreciones de la orofaringe o del tracto gastrointestinal por encima del bal&#243;n del neumotaponamiento<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib46"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">46</span></a> y&#44; a pesar de un adecuado control de la presi&#243;n del neumotaponamiento&#44; puede haber aspiraci&#243;n de secreciones<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib81"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">81</span></a>&#46; Por eso es l&#243;gico pensar que aspirar las secreciones subgl&#243;ticas continuamente puede prevenir la aparici&#243;n de NAV&#46; Se dise&#241;&#243; para este efecto un tubo endotraqueal con un canal dorsal adicional que permite la aspiraci&#243;n continua o intermitente de secreciones subgl&#243;ticas &#40;HI-LO Evac-tube&#44; Mallinckrodt&#44; Hazelwood&#44; Missouri&#44; EE&#46;UU&#46;&#41;&#46; Al menos 5 ensayos cl&#237;nicos controlados y un metaan&#225;lisis demuestran una disminuci&#243;n de la incidencia de NAV&#44; especialmente la de inicio temprano&#44; pero no de la mortalidad&#44; estancia en la UCI o tiempo de VM<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib82"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">82&#8211;85</span></a>&#46; Es importante mencionar que el canal dorsal para la aspiraci&#243;n de secreciones puede obstruirse&#46; Rello et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib47"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">47</span></a> observaron una disfunci&#243;n en la aspiraci&#243;n continua de secreciones con este tubo en el 34&#37; de los pacientes&#46; Adem&#225;s&#44; una publicaci&#243;n reciente que ha investigado la causa de esta disfunci&#243;n encontr&#243; que la m&#225;s frecuente era el prolapso de la mucosa traqueal a trav&#233;s del puerto de succi&#243;n subgl&#243;tica&#44; lo que expone al paciente a un posible riesgo de lesi&#243;n traqueal en dicha zona<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib86"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">86</span></a>&#46; Este estudio se realiz&#243; en pacientes con aspiraci&#243;n continua de secreciones subgl&#243;ticas&#44; de modo que queda por establecer si esta disfunci&#243;n no se presenta en la succi&#243;n intermitente&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Todo y la limitada evidencia&#44; hay un tubo endotraqueal&#44; Microcuff<span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#8482;</span>&#44; que incorpora un neumotaponamiento con membrana de poliuretano ultradelgada &#40;7<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#956;&#44; en comparaci&#243;n con las 50<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#956; de los neumotaponamientos convencionales&#41; y proporciona un mejor sellado de la v&#237;a a&#233;rea&#44; con lo que se reduce la formaci&#243;n de los pliegues que se crean cuando se infla el neumotaponamiento<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib87"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">87</span></a>&#46; Por otra parte&#44; el tubo endotraqueal SealGuard Evac &#40;Mallinckrodt&#41; incorpora neumotaponamiento de poliuretano y succi&#243;n de secreciones subgl&#243;ticas<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib88"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">88</span></a>&#46; Un estudio prospectivo y aleatorizado con 280 pacientes compar&#243; el tubo convencional con el tubo endotraqueal SealGuard Evac &#40;Mallinckrodt&#41;&#44; y encontr&#243; una disminuci&#243;n significativa&#44; de m&#225;s de 3 veces&#44; de la incidencia de NAV temprana y tard&#237;a utilizando el drenaje de secreciones subgl&#243;ticas de forma intermitente<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib88"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">88</span></a>&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">En un estudio aleatorizado&#44; Bouza et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib89"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">89</span></a> compararon la aspiraci&#243;n convencional con la aspiraci&#243;n de secreciones subgl&#243;ticas de forma continua en pacientes operados de cirug&#237;a card&#237;aca&#44; y concluyeron que los pacientes con m&#225;s de 48<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h de VM y aspiraci&#243;n subgl&#243;tica tuvieron una incidencia menor de NAV &#40;p&#61;0&#44;03&#41; y que la medida disminuy&#243; el uso de antibi&#243;ticos &#40;p&#60;0&#44;001&#41;&#46;</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Control de la presi&#243;n del neumotaponamiento</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Una funci&#243;n fundamental del neumotaponamiento del tubo endotraqueal es sellar la v&#237;a a&#233;rea de tal manera que no permita la fuga de aire al exterior&#44; que no comprometa la perfusi&#243;n de la mucosa traqueal y que impida el paso de secreciones subgl&#243;ticas a la v&#237;a a&#233;rea inferior<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib47"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">47&#44;90&#44;91</span></a>&#46; Los neumotaponamientos convencionales&#44; de alto volumen y baja presi&#243;n&#44; no pueden prevenir las microaspiraciones ni con presiones de hasta 60<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cmH<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>O<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib92"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">92</span></a>&#46; A pesar de un control autom&#225;tico de la presi&#243;n del bal&#243;n&#44; puede haber paso de secreciones hacia la v&#237;a a&#233;rea inferior<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib81"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">81</span></a>&#46; Teniendo en cuenta la informaci&#243;n disponible&#44; se recomienda mantener la presi&#243;n del bal&#243;n de neumotaponamiento entre 20 y 30<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cmH<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>O&#44; todo y que la prevenci&#243;n de las microaspiraciones no sea &#243;ptima&#44; ya que el aumento de la presi&#243;n del neumotaponamiento por encima de 30<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cmH<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>O puede producir lesi&#243;n traqueal<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;6&#44;93&#8211;97</span></a>&#46;</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Evitar cambios o manipulaci&#243;n de las tubuladuras del respirador</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Las condensaciones que aparecen en las tubuladuras del respirador que utilizan humidificadores&#44; especialmente los de agua caliente&#44; corren el riesgo de contaminarse&#46; Craven et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib98"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">98</span></a> demostraron una mayor incidencia de NAV en los pacientes a quienes se cambiaban los circuitos del ventilador cada 24<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h&#44; comparados con aquellos en quienes el cambio se realizaba cada 48<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h&#46; Posteriormente Kollef<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib99"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">99</span></a> describi&#243; que cambiar las tubuladuras del respirador cada 7 d&#237;as no aumentaba la incidencia de NAV&#44; pero s&#237; incrementaba los costes&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Se deben implementar procedimientos adecuados para drenar las condensaciones y evitar que el personal sanitario facilite su desplazamiento hacia la v&#237;a a&#233;rea inferior con los movimientos del paciente o de las tubuladuras<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">100&#8211;102</span></a>&#46; Por tanto&#44; se recomienda cambiarlas cuando se encuentren visualmente contaminadas de sangre&#44; v&#243;mito o secreciones purulentas<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;103&#44;104</span></a>&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Con respecto a los humidificadores de agua caliente y a los intercambiadores de calor y humedad&#44; se considera que estos &#250;ltimos pueden reducir la acumulaci&#243;n de condensaciones y la colonizaci&#243;n de las tubuladuras&#44; pero no se ha asociado a una disminuci&#243;n de la incidencia de NAV<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib103"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">103&#44;105&#44;106</span></a>&#46;</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Posici&#243;n de semisedestaci&#243;n</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Al menos 3 estudios con marcaci&#243;n radiactiva del contenido g&#225;strico han demostrado que el reflujo g&#225;strico y su posterior aspiraci&#243;n en los pacientes con VM pod&#237;an evitarse con la semisedestaci&#243;n<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib92"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">92&#44;107&#44;108</span></a>&#46; La posici&#243;n supina facilita la aspiraci&#243;n de secreciones subgl&#243;ticas&#44; especialmente cuando el paciente recibe nutrici&#243;n enteral<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib92"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">92&#44;109&#44;110</span></a>&#46; Drakulovic et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib110"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">110</span></a> demostraron el beneficio de la semisedestaci&#243;n &#40;45&#176;&#41;&#44; que disminuy&#243; la tasa de aspiraci&#243;n orog&#225;strica y la incidencia de NAV &#40;3 veces menos&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib110"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">110&#44;111</span></a>&#59; adem&#225;s se observ&#243; una tendencia a disminuir la tasa de mortalidad cuando se compar&#243; con la posici&#243;n supina neutra &#40;0&#176;&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib110"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">110</span></a>&#46; Recientemente&#44; Van Nieuwenhoven et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib112"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">112</span></a>&#44; en un ensayo cl&#237;nico controlado&#44; cuestionan la viabilidad de mantener a los pacientes constantemente en semisedestaci&#243;n &#40;45&#176;&#41; y su utilidad para prevenir la NAV&#46; En 4 UCI de Holanda aleatorizaron a 221 pacientes en 2 grupos&#58; uno con la cabecera a 45&#176; y otro a 10&#176;&#46; No se logr&#243; la meta de cabecera a 45&#176; durante el 85&#37; del tiempo y la diferencia obtenida entre los 2 grupos &#40;28 frente a 10&#176;&#41; no previno el desarrollo de NAV&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Se recomienda la semisedestaci&#243;n especialmente en pacientes que reciban nutrici&#243;n enteral&#44; debido al bajo coste que esta intervenci&#243;n requiere&#44; su f&#225;cil aplicaci&#243;n y su establecida eficacia&#46;</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Camas cin&#233;ticas</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Los pacientes hospitalizados en la UCI&#44; debido a su confinamiento en cama&#44; corren m&#225;s riesgo de presentar complicaciones pulmonares &#40;atelectasias&#44; mal manejo de las secreciones&#44; etc&#46;&#41;&#46; Se ha propuesto el uso de camas cin&#233;ticas&#44; que permiten la rotaci&#243;n continua de estos pacientes para disminuir la incidencia de la NAV&#46; Ensayos cl&#237;nicos controlados han demostrado una reducci&#243;n del riesgo de NAV en el grupo de pacientes quir&#250;rgicos y neuroquir&#250;rgicos&#44; sin demostrarlo en pacientes m&#233;dicos<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib113"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">113&#44;114</span></a>&#46; Sin embargo&#44; la utilizaci&#243;n de estas camas tiene m&#250;ltiples barreras&#58; el mayor coste&#44; la posibilidad de desconexi&#243;n de cat&#233;teres endovenosos y la dificultad para controlar las zonas de presi&#243;n<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib113"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">113</span></a>&#46;</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Nutrici&#243;n enteral</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Est&#225; establecido que la desnutrici&#243;n en el paciente cr&#237;tico produce deterioro del sistema inmunitario&#44; disfunci&#243;n del impulso respiratorio y debilidad de los m&#250;sculos respiratorios&#44; lo que lleva a la dependencia prolongada del respirador y al aumento de la morbimortalidad<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib115"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">115</span></a>&#44; adem&#225;s de asociarse a mayor estancia hospitalaria<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib115"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">115&#44;116</span></a>&#46; A pesar de que no hay ensayos cl&#237;nicos controlados que de manera significativa y definitiva demuestren beneficios en los resultados cl&#237;nicos importantes&#44; tales como la duraci&#243;n de la VM&#44; de la estancia en la UCI y la mortalidad&#44; el soporte nutricional se considera un componente integral de lo que debe ser el tratamiento &#243;ptimo de los pacientes en la UCI<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib117"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">117&#44;118</span></a>&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Sin embargo&#44; este tratamiento no est&#225; exento de complicaciones&#46; La nutrici&#243;n enteral se ha considerado un factor de riesgo para la NAV dada la posibilidad de aspiraci&#243;n del contenido g&#225;strico<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib2"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;92&#44;109&#44;117&#44;119&#44;120</span></a>&#46; Una publicaci&#243;n reciente describe que el establecimiento y seguimiento de un protocolo de nutrici&#243;n enteral&#44; que inclu&#237;a la semisedestaci&#243;n &#40;&#62; 30&#176;&#41;&#44; logr&#243; que el 85&#37; de los pacientes obtuviera la meta de nutrici&#243;n enteral &#40;un 78&#37; antes del protocolo&#41; y que la incidencia de NAV se redujera de 6&#44;8 a 3&#44;2 por cada 1&#46;000 d&#237;as de VM<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib121"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">121</span></a>&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">En una revisi&#243;n sistem&#225;tica de la literatura m&#233;dica que compar&#243; la nutrici&#243;n enteral con la parenteral en pacientes cr&#237;ticos con respecto a su evoluci&#243;n&#44; no hubo diferencias estad&#237;sticamente significativas en cuanto a mortalidad&#44; pero s&#237; un aumento significativo de las complicaciones infecciosas&#44; tales como NAV&#44; neumon&#237;a aspirativa&#44; infecciones urinarias&#44; bacteriemia&#44; abscesos intraabdominales y sepsis asociada a cat&#233;ter&#44; adem&#225;s de incrementar los costes<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib122"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">122&#44;123</span></a>&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Un metaan&#225;lisis reciente de 11 ensayos cl&#237;nicos controlados&#44; realizados en la UCI&#44; que evalu&#243; la mortalidad&#44; el riesgo de aspiraci&#243;n y la neumon&#237;a&#44; no encontr&#243; diferencias significativas en la evoluci&#243;n y concluy&#243; que&#44; en los pacientes cr&#237;ticos sin evidencia de alteraci&#243;n de la motilidad gastrointestinal&#44; la utilizaci&#243;n de nutrici&#243;n pospil&#243;rica no se asociaba a beneficios cl&#237;nicos<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib124"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">124</span></a>&#46;</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Conclusiones</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Este art&#237;culo revisa la evidencia relacionada con las medidas no farmacol&#243;gicas que han demostrado tener un impacto en la prevenci&#243;n de la NAV&#46; Se recomienda implementar algunas de estas intervenciones de forma conjunta para obtener mejores resultados&#46;</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Financiaci&#243;n</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Financiado en parte por CibeRes y AGAUR SGR 05&#47;520&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">El Dr&#46; Restrepo cuenta con una beca de UTHSCSA y NIH a trav&#233;s del mecanismo del CTSA &#40;KL2 RR025766&#41;&#46;</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Conflictos de intereses</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">El Dr&#46; Restrepo ejerce de <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">speaker</span> para Ortho-McNeil-Janssen&#44; Johnson &#38; Johnson&#44; Pfizer&#44; BARD Inc&#46; y Covidien&#46; Tambi&#233;n pertenece al comit&#233; de asesoramiento de Ortho-McNeil-Janssen y Johnson &#38; Johnson&#46;</p></span></span>"
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          "titulo" => "Abstract"
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        3 => array:2 [
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          "titulo" => "Keywords"
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        4 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Introducci&#243;n"
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        5 => array:2 [
          "titulo" => "Medidas generales para el control de infecciones"
          "secciones" => array:1 [
            0 => array:1 [
              "titulo" => "Higiene de las manos"
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          ]
        ]
        6 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Ratio adecuada de personal sanitario"
        ]
        7 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Evitar los traslados intrahospitalarios innecesarios"
        ]
        8 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Uso de la ventilaci&#243;n mec&#225;nica no invasiva &#40;VMNI&#41;"
        ]
        9 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Desconexi&#243;n temprana de la ventilaci&#243;n mec&#225;nica"
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        10 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Intubaci&#243;n orotraqueal&#47;sonda orog&#225;strica"
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        11 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Prevenci&#243;n de la formaci&#243;n de biofilme o biocapa"
        ]
        12 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Drenaje de secreciones subgl&#243;ticas"
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        13 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Control de la presi&#243;n del neumotaponamiento"
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        14 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Evitar cambios o manipulaci&#243;n de las tubuladuras del respirador"
        ]
        15 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Posici&#243;n de semisedestaci&#243;n"
        ]
        16 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Camas cin&#233;ticas"
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        17 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Nutrici&#243;n enteral"
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        18 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Conclusiones"
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        19 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Financiaci&#243;n"
        ]
        20 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Conflictos de intereses"
        ]
        21 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Bibliograf&#237;a"
        ]
      ]
    ]
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    "tienePdf" => true
    "fechaRecibido" => "2009-04-02"
    "fechaAceptado" => "2009-08-30"
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        0 => array:4 [
          "clase" => "keyword"
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          "palabras" => array:5 [
            0 => "Neumon&#237;a asociada a ventilaci&#243;n mec&#225;nica"
            1 => "Respiraci&#243;n artificial"
            2 => "Infecci&#243;n hospitalaria"
            3 => "Unidad de cuidados intensivos"
            4 => "Prevenci&#243;n de enfermedades"
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        0 => array:4 [
          "clase" => "keyword"
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          "palabras" => array:5 [
            0 => "Ventilator-associated pneumonia"
            1 => "Artificial respiration"
            2 => "Cross infection"
            3 => "Intensive care unit"
            4 => "Disease prevention"
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    "resumen" => array:2 [
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        "titulo" => "Resumen"
        "resumen" => "<p class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">La neumon&#237;a asociada a ventilaci&#243;n mec&#225;nica es la primera causa de mortalidad por infecciones nosocomiales en la unidad de cuidados intensivos&#46; Su incidencia oscila entre el 9 y el 67&#37; de los pacientes que requieren ventilaci&#243;n mec&#225;nica&#46; Hay m&#250;ltiples factores de riesgo asociados y aumenta significativamente la estancia en la unidad de cuidados intensivos y en el hospital&#46; El coste adicional por cada neumon&#237;a asociada a ventilaci&#243;n mec&#225;nica oscila entre 9&#46;000 y 31&#46;000 &#8364;&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Por tanto&#44; su prevenci&#243;n debe considerarse una prioridad&#46; &#201;sta podr&#237;a disminuir tanto la morbimortalidad asociada como el coste de la atenci&#243;n&#44; y mejorar la seguridad del paciente&#46;</p>"
      ]
      "en" => array:2 [
        "titulo" => "Abstract"
        "resumen" => "<p class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Ventilator-associated pneumonia &#40;VAP&#41; is the first cause of mortality due to nosocomial infections in the intensive care unit&#46; Its incidence ranges from 9&#37; to 67&#37; of patients on mechanical ventilation&#46; Risk factors are multiple and are associated with prolonged stays in hospital and intensive care units&#46; Additional costs for each episode of VAP range from 9&#44;000 &#8364; to 31&#44;000 &#8364;&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Thus&#44; its prevention should be considered as a priority&#46; This prevention could decrease associated morbidity&#44; mortality&#44; costs&#44; and increase patient safety&#46;</p>"
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                  \t\t\t\t">Factores modificables&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">1&#46; Posici&#243;n supina&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">2&#46; Sobredistensi&#243;n g&#225;strica&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">3&#46; Contaminaci&#243;n de las tubuladuras del respirador&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">4&#46; Traslados frecuentes del paciente&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">5&#46; Baja presi&#243;n del neumotaponamiento&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Factores no modificables&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">1&#46; Sexo masculino&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">&#62;10</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Humidificadores con intercambiadores calor&#47;humedad&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Uso de equipos de succi&#243;n abierta y cerrada&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">62&#44;5&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Equipos de succi&#243;n subgl&#243;tica&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">41&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">22&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">60&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">55&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">56&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">25&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Control diario del neumotaponamiento del tubo endotraqueal&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">74&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">58&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">67&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">47&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">81&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">69&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">25&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">43&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">85&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">71&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">75&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">43&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">75&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">71&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Posici&#243;n en semisedestaci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">75&#44;5&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">92&#44;5&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">78&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">93&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">73&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">92&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">75&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">93&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">75&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">93&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">100&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">93&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">62&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">93&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Ventilaci&#243;n no invasiva como primera l&#237;nea de tratamiento&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">75&#44;5&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">70&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">78&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">71&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">73&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">69&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">77&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">75&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">64&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">75&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">69&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">75&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">71&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
                  """
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                0 => "xTab262696.png"
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        "descripcion" => array:1 [
          "es" => "<p class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Comparaci&#243;n del cumplimiento de medidas no farmacol&#243;gicas<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib25"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25&#44;26</span></a></p>"
        ]
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        "tabla" => array:2 [
          "leyenda" => "<p class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">ATS&#47;IDSA&#58; American Thoracic Society&#47;Infectious Diseases Society of America&#59; CCCS&#58; Canadian Critical Care Society&#59; CDC&#58; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention&#59; EPOC&#58; enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva cr&#243;nica&#59; ETF&#58; European Task Force&#59; UCI&#58; unidad de cuidados intensivos&#46;</p>"
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            0 => array:2 [
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                0 => """
                  <table border="0" frame="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Medidas no farmacol&#243;gicas&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">ATS&#47;IDSA 2005<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">CDC 2003<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib2"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">ETF 2001<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib27"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">CCCS 2004<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib28"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Comentarios y recomendaciones&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Medidas generales para el control de infecciones&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&#46; Educaci&#243;n al grupo&#44; vigilancia microbiol&#243;gica&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Ratio adecuada de personal sanitario&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&#46; Se propone una adecuada relaci&#243;n enfermera-paciente &#40;1&#58;1&#41; y terapeuta respiratorio entrenado en UCI&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Evitar los traslados intrahospitalarios innecesarios&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&#46; Si es necesario&#44; tomar medidas para evitar la NAV&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Uso de ventilaci&#243;n mec&#225;nica no invasiva&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&#46; Alternativa para EPOC descompensada&#44; insuficiencia respiratoria hipox&#233;mica y algunos pacientes inmunodeprimidos&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Desconexi&#243;n temprana de la ventilaci&#243;n mec&#225;nica&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&#46; Interrumpir la sedaci&#243;n diariamente&#44; implementar una gu&#237;a para extubaci&#243;n temprana&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Intubaci&#243;n orotraqueal&#47;sonda orog&#225;strica&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&#46; Intubaci&#243;n orotraqueal y sonda orog&#225;strica&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Prevenci&#243;n de la formaci&#243;n de biofilme o biocapa&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Se debe investigar&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Drenaje de secreciones subgl&#243;ticas&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Se debe investigar&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&#46; Especialmente en las UCI donde la incidencia de NAV sea alta&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Control de la presi&#243;n del neumotaponamiento&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&#46; Por lo menos a 20 cmH<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>O&#46; Aunque puede haber fuga de secreciones&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Evitar cambios o manipulaci&#243;n en las tubuladuras del respirador&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&#46; S&#243;lo cambiarlas cuando est&#233;n visualmente contaminadas&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Posici&#243;n de semisedestaci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&#46; Permanencia a 30-45&#186; todo el tiempo&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Camas cin&#233;ticas&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Se debe investigar&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&#46; Indicadas en pacientes posquir&#250;rgicos y neurol&#243;gicos&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Nutrici&#243;n enteral&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Se debe investigar&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&#44; tan temprano como sea posible&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Pospil&#243;rica&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Se debe investigar&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">G&#225;strica si no hay evidencia de alteraci&#243;n de la motilidad gastrointestinal&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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Prevención no farmacológica de la neumonía asociada a ventilación mecánica
Non-Pharmacological Prevention of Ventilator Associated Pneumonia
Luis Aurelio Díaza, Mireia Llauradób, Jordi Rellob,c, Marcos I. Restrepod,
Corresponding author
restrepom@uthscsa.edu

Autor para correspondencia.
a Geisinger Health System, Danville, Pensilvania, EE.UU.
b CIBER de Enfermedades Respiratorias (CibeRes), Hospital Universitario Joan XXIII, Tarragona, España
c Institut d’Investigació Sanitària Pere Virgili (IISPV), Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, España
d VERDICT, South Texas Veterans Health Care System Audie L. Murphy Division, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, San Antonio, Texas, EE.UU.
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&#201;sta se clasifica en temprana o tard&#237;a seg&#250;n se desarrolle en los primeros 4 d&#237;as de VM o posteriormente<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib8"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8&#44;9</span></a>&#46; Los organismos causantes de la NAV temprana son los que generalmente producen las neumon&#237;as adquiridas en la comunidad&#44; y los responsables de las NAV tard&#237;as generalmente son organismos multirresistentes<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib10"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10&#44;11</span></a>&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl1"></elsevierMultimedia><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">La mortalidad atribuible&#44; en la que influyen m&#250;ltiples factores&#44; puede ser superior al 50&#37;&#44; y es m&#225;s alta en el grupo de pacientes con bacteriemia o infecciones por <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Pseudomonas aeruginosa</span> o <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Acinetobacter</span> sp&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib12"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12&#8211;16</span></a>&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Varios autores han evidenciado un aumento de la estancia en la UCI debido a la NAV de entre 4&#44;3 y 13 d&#237;as<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib13"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13&#44;14&#44;17</span></a>&#46; 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de respuestas correctas&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Diferentes estudios han evaluado el cumplimiento de las gu&#237;as&#46; Rello et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib23"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a> comunicaron un incumplimiento de las gu&#237;as no farmacol&#243;gicas por parte del personal m&#233;dico de un 19&#44;6&#37;&#46; Las causas m&#225;s comunes de no cumplimiento fueron el desacuerdo con los resultados de los ensayos&#44; el hecho de no disponer de los recursos y el coste&#46; Respecto al personal de enfermer&#237;a&#44; Ricart et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib24"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></a> notificaron una falta de cumplimiento de las gu&#237;as de un 22&#44;3&#37;&#46; Las razones m&#225;s comunes fueron la no disponibilidad de los recursos&#44; el malestar del paciente&#44; el desacuerdo con los resultados de los ensayos&#44; el miedo a los efectos adversos y el coste&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Al menos 2 estudios multic&#233;ntricos han evaluado el cumplimiento de las medidas no farmacol&#243;gicas y han encontrado un cumplimiento elevado&#44; aunque hay diferencias entre ellos&#44; tal como se muestra en la <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl2">tabla 2</a><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib25"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25&#44;26</span></a>&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl2"></elsevierMultimedia><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">En conclusi&#243;n&#44; es notoria la importancia de difundir las medidas preventivas de la NAV con el objetivo de mejorar los resultados&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">En este art&#237;culo se revisan las medidas no farmacol&#243;gicas&#44; que son las m&#225;s econ&#243;micas y&#44; en su mayor&#237;a&#44; f&#225;ciles de aplicar&#44; dada la importancia de difundirlas para poder mejorar las consecuencias derivadas de la NAV &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl3">tabla 3</a>&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib27"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27&#44;28</span></a>&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl3"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Medidas generales para el control de infecciones</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">&#201;stas se han dirigido a evitar la transmisi&#243;n cruzada y a optimizar el uso de los dispositivos invasivos<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib29"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29&#8211;31</span></a>&#46; Dentro de las estrategias para prevenir la NAV figura un programa estricto de control de infecciones que incluye la educaci&#243;n del equipo sanitario&#44; la adecuada desinfecci&#243;n de las manos&#44; la utilizaci&#243;n de los m&#233;todos de barrera y un protocolo de vigilancia microbiol&#243;gica<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib2"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;32&#44;33</span></a>&#46;</p><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Higiene de las manos</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Los organismos causantes de la NAV&#44; en especial bacilos gramnegativos y <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Staphylococcus aureus</span>&#44; son propios del ambiente hospitalario&#44; y su transmisi&#243;n al paciente ocurre frecuentemente a partir de la colonizaci&#243;n de las manos del personal sanitario<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib34"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">34&#8211;36</span></a>&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Las gu&#237;as para la higiene de las manos en los centros sanitarios del Center for Disease Control and Prevention describen que&#44; seg&#250;n m&#250;ltiples estudios observacionales&#44; el cumplimiento de la recomendaci&#243;n de lavarse las manos entre el personal sanitario es escaso&#44; cercano al 40&#37;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib30"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30</span></a>&#46; Bonten et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib37"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37&#44;38</span></a> comunican que el cumplimiento de esta medida es inferior entre los m&#233;dicos &#40;enfermeras&#58; 40&#37;&#59; m&#233;dicos&#58; 25&#37;&#41;&#46; Sin embargo&#44; el uso de soluciones alcoh&#243;licas ha aumentado el cumplimiento &#40;del 48 al 66&#37;&#41; y disminuido la tasa de infecciones nosocomiales &#40;del 17 al 9&#44;9&#37;&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib39"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">39</span></a>&#46;</p></span></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Ratio adecuada de personal sanitario</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Needleman et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib40"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">40</span></a> han encontrado una asociaci&#243;n importante entre el mayor n&#250;mero de horas de atenci&#243;n por la enfermera jefe y una disminuci&#243;n de la incidencia de 5 efectos adversos&#8212;infecci&#243;n urinaria&#44; hemorragia digestiva alta&#44; neumon&#237;a nosocomial&#44; choque o paro card&#237;aco y &#8220;fallo en el rescate&#8221; &#40;muerte de un paciente asociada a una complicaci&#243;n&#41;&#8212;y de la estancia hospitalaria&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Cho et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib41"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span></a>&#44; en un estudio retrospectivo que incluy&#243; a 124&#46;204 pacientes&#44; concluyeron que la sobrecarga de trabajo para el equipo de enfermer&#237;a contribuye a que se presenten errores en las medidas de control de infecciones&#44; como la desinfecci&#243;n de las manos y el aislamiento de pacientes infectados por organismos multirresistentes&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">La participaci&#243;n de terapeutas respiratorios facilita el &#233;xito de los programas educativos y de la implementaci&#243;n de protocolos dirigidos a disminuir la incidencia de NAV<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib42"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">42</span></a>&#46; Se recomienda tener una ratio enfermera&#58;paciente de 1&#58;1&#46; Adem&#225;s&#44; los terapeutas respiratorios deben intervenir en la UCI con el objetivo de compartir responsabilidades y trabajar en equipo&#46;</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Evitar los traslados intrahospitalarios innecesarios</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A menudo es necesario el traslado de los pacientes con VM desde la UCI a otras &#225;reas del hospital para la realizaci&#243;n de pruebas diagn&#243;sticas y terap&#233;uticas&#46; Los pacientes pueden permanecer en posici&#243;n supina durante largos per&#237;odos de tiempo y las tubuladuras del respirador son manipuladas a menudo&#44; lo que facilita la aspiraci&#243;n de secreciones contaminadas&#46; El traslado intrahospitalario de pacientes con VM aumenta el riesgo de desarrollar NAV&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Al menos 2 estudios describen que&#44; de los pacientes que tuvieron como m&#237;nimo un traslado fuera de la UCI&#44; el 24&#8211;26&#37; present&#243; NAV&#44; mientras que entre los pacientes no trasladados &#233;sta ocurri&#243; en un 4&#8211;10&#37; &#40;p&#61;0&#44;001&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib43"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">43&#44;44</span></a>&#46; A pesar de todo&#44; no se ha establecido la causa fisiopatol&#243;gica que explica estos hallazgos&#46; Se recomienda que&#44; cuando sea necesario el traslado de estos pacientes&#44; se tomen medidas preventivas&#44; tales como suspender la nutrici&#243;n enteral 4<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h antes del traslado&#44; evitar el desplazamiento de condensaciones hacia la v&#237;a a&#233;rea inferior al manipular las tubuladuras del respirador y&#44; si no hay contraindicaciones&#44; trasladar al paciente en posici&#243;n semisentado&#46;</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Uso de la ventilaci&#243;n mec&#225;nica no invasiva &#40;VMNI&#41;</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Los pacientes intubados tienen hasta 21 veces m&#225;s riesgo de adquirir una neumon&#237;a nosocomial que los pacientes sin v&#237;a a&#233;rea artificial<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib45"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">45</span></a>&#46; Adem&#225;s de la depresi&#243;n de los mecanismos de defensa del paciente&#44; la inserci&#243;n de un tubo endotraqueal es una maniobra invasiva que puede producir lesiones en la mucosa traqueal y anular el reflejo tus&#237;geno&#46; Esto lleva a la acumulaci&#243;n de secreciones subgl&#243;ticas que generan in&#243;culos bacterianos y facilitan su entrada al pulm&#243;n<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib46"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">46&#8211;48</span></a>&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Las gu&#237;as de la American Thoracic Society&#47;Infectious Disease Society of America recomiendan la VMNI como alternativa para los pacientes con exacerbaciones agudas de enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva cr&#243;nica o insuficiencia respiratoria hipox&#233;mica&#44; y para algunos pacientes inmunodeprimidos con insuficiencia respiratoria&#44; infiltrados pulmonares y fiebre&#46; La evidencia indica que se produce una disminuci&#243;n de la incidencia de neumon&#237;a nosocomial y de la mortalidad<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;49&#44;50</span></a>&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">La utilizaci&#243;n de la VMNI para evitar la reintubaci&#243;n posterior a una extubaci&#243;n fallida es una medida cuestionada&#46; En un estudio multic&#233;ntrico realizado en 37 centros de 8 pa&#237;ses&#44; se demostr&#243; que la aplicaci&#243;n de VMNI a pacientes con extubaci&#243;n fallida no evit&#243; la necesidad de reintubaci&#243;n ni redujo la mortalidad&#46; Sin embargo&#44; el tiempo de reintubaci&#243;n fue mayor en los pacientes tratados con VMNI<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib51"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">51</span></a>&#46; A pesar de esto&#44; puede ser una alternativa para la extubaci&#243;n en pacientes con hipercapnia<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib52"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">52&#8211;55</span></a>&#46;</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Desconexi&#243;n temprana de la ventilaci&#243;n mec&#225;nica</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Aunque no siempre es posible evitar la intubaci&#243;n endotraqueal&#44; debe haber una estrategia para retirarla&#46; La reducci&#243;n del tiempo de VM tiene la capacidad de reducir la incidencia de NAV de manera importante y disminuir los costes<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib56"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">56&#44;57</span></a>&#46; Estudios no controlados han evidenciado que el seguimiento de un protocolo dirigido a la extubaci&#243;n temprana de los pacientes ventilados disminuye la duraci&#243;n de la VM<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib58"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">58&#8211;61</span></a>&#46; Marelich et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib42"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">42</span></a> publicaron los resultados de un ensayo cl&#237;nico controlado en 385 pacientes donde los terapeutas respiratorios y enfermeras aplicaron un protocolo para la extubaci&#243;n temprana&#44; el cual permiti&#243; reducir el tiempo de VM en 2&#44;33 d&#237;as&#46; Ese mismo a&#241;o&#44; se public&#243; un metaan&#225;lisis donde se recomendaba la utilizaci&#243;n de protocolos de desconexi&#243;n temprana de la VM con la participaci&#243;n de enfermeras y terapeutas respiratorios en su implementaci&#243;n<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib62"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">62</span></a>&#46; Estas estrategias&#8212;interrupci&#243;n diaria de la sedaci&#243;n &#40;a pesar de ser una medida farmacol&#243;gica&#41; y seguimiento de un protocolo de extubaci&#243;n temprana&#8212;han demostrado acortar el tiempo de la VM<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib42"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">42&#44;62&#8211;65</span></a>&#46;</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Intubaci&#243;n orotraqueal&#47;sonda orog&#225;strica</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Est&#225; demostrado que la inserci&#243;n de sondas o tubos que impidan el drenaje de los senos paranasales durante m&#225;s de 48<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h favorece la aparici&#243;n de sinusitis nosocomial<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib66"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">66&#44;67</span></a>&#46; Holzapfel et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib68"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">68</span></a> demostraron que&#44; comparada con la intubaci&#243;n nasotraqueal&#44; la intubaci&#243;n orotraqueal se asociaba a una menor incidencia de NAV&#46; Se recomienda la utilizaci&#243;n de la v&#237;a orofar&#237;ngea para la intubaci&#243;n endotraqueal y la inserci&#243;n de sondas orog&#225;stricas&#44; dada la disminuci&#243;n de la incidencia de sinusitis y de NAV<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib69"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">69&#8211;72</span></a>&#46; Un estudio cl&#237;nico controlado demostr&#243; que la b&#250;squeda sistem&#225;tica de sinusitis maxilar en los pacientes intubados por v&#237;a nasotraqueal podr&#237;a disminuir la incidencia de NAV<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib72"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">72</span></a>&#46; Sin embargo&#44; no se recomienda la b&#250;squeda sistem&#225;tica de sinusitis en pacientes con intubaci&#243;n orotraqueal&#44; ya que la literatura m&#233;dica no es concluyente<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib67"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">67&#44;73</span></a>&#46;</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Prevenci&#243;n de la formaci&#243;n de biofilme o biocapa</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">En 1986 Sottile et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib74"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">74</span></a> describieron la presencia del biofilme o biocapa&#44; compuesto por un agregado de bacterias formado en el interior del tubo endotraqueal que protege a los organismos de la acci&#243;n de los antibi&#243;ticos y de las defensas del paciente&#46; Feldman et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib75"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">75</span></a> estudiaron la colonizaci&#243;n de los tubos endotraqueales de pacientes con VM y encontraron que todos los tubos ten&#237;an una biocapa en el tercio distal&#46; Adair et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib76"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">76</span></a> investigaron la resistencia antibi&#243;tica de la biocapa del tubo endotraqueal y los organismos pulmonares en la NAV&#44; y concluyeron que el 70&#37; de los pacientes con NAV ten&#237;a los mismos organismos en la biocapa del tubo y en las secreciones traqueales&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Otra estrategia consiste en evitar o reducir la formaci&#243;n de la biocapa&#44; para lo cual se han dise&#241;ado tubos endotraqueales recubiertos de plata<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib77"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">77</span></a>&#46; La plata previene la formaci&#243;n de la biocapa&#44; tiene actividad bactericida&#44; reduce la carga bacteriana y disminuye la inflamaci&#243;n<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib77"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">77</span></a>&#46; Rello et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib78"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">78</span></a> informaron de que la utilizaci&#243;n del tubo endotraqueal recubierto de plata es segura&#44; retrasa la colonizaci&#243;n del tubo endotraqueal&#44; reduce la formaci&#243;n de la biocapa y disminuye la carga bacteriana&#44; y concluyeron que se requieren estudios cl&#237;nicos controlados para establecer la eficacia del dispositivo en la prevenci&#243;n de la NAV&#46; En noviembre de 2007&#44; la Food and Drug Administration autoriz&#243; la venta del tubo endotraqueal recubierto de plata&#46; En un ensayo cl&#237;nico controlado con 2&#46;003 pacientes intubados durante m&#225;s de 24<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h&#44; Kollef et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib79"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">79</span></a> concluyeron que aquellos en quienes se utiliz&#243; el tubo endotraqueal recubierto de plata tuvieron una incidencia menor de NAV comprobada microbiol&#243;gicamente &#40;p&#61;0&#44;03&#41;&#46; Adem&#225;s&#44; se retras&#243; el desarrollo de NAV con el tubo endotraqueal recubierto de plata cuando se compar&#243; con un tubo similar sin plata &#40;p&#61;0&#44;005&#41;&#46;</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Drenaje de secreciones subgl&#243;ticas</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Uno de los mecanismos principales para el desarrollo de NAV es la colonizaci&#243;n bacteriana de la orofaringe y la aspiraci&#243;n de secreciones subgl&#243;ticas<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib80"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">80</span></a>&#46; La presencia del tubo endotraqueal lleva a la acumulaci&#243;n de secreciones de la orofaringe o del tracto gastrointestinal por encima del bal&#243;n del neumotaponamiento<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib46"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">46</span></a> y&#44; a pesar de un adecuado control de la presi&#243;n del neumotaponamiento&#44; puede haber aspiraci&#243;n de secreciones<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib81"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">81</span></a>&#46; Por eso es l&#243;gico pensar que aspirar las secreciones subgl&#243;ticas continuamente puede prevenir la aparici&#243;n de NAV&#46; Se dise&#241;&#243; para este efecto un tubo endotraqueal con un canal dorsal adicional que permite la aspiraci&#243;n continua o intermitente de secreciones subgl&#243;ticas &#40;HI-LO Evac-tube&#44; Mallinckrodt&#44; Hazelwood&#44; Missouri&#44; EE&#46;UU&#46;&#41;&#46; Al menos 5 ensayos cl&#237;nicos controlados y un metaan&#225;lisis demuestran una disminuci&#243;n de la incidencia de NAV&#44; especialmente la de inicio temprano&#44; pero no de la mortalidad&#44; estancia en la UCI o tiempo de VM<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib82"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">82&#8211;85</span></a>&#46; Es importante mencionar que el canal dorsal para la aspiraci&#243;n de secreciones puede obstruirse&#46; Rello et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib47"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">47</span></a> observaron una disfunci&#243;n en la aspiraci&#243;n continua de secreciones con este tubo en el 34&#37; de los pacientes&#46; Adem&#225;s&#44; una publicaci&#243;n reciente que ha investigado la causa de esta disfunci&#243;n encontr&#243; que la m&#225;s frecuente era el prolapso de la mucosa traqueal a trav&#233;s del puerto de succi&#243;n subgl&#243;tica&#44; lo que expone al paciente a un posible riesgo de lesi&#243;n traqueal en dicha zona<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib86"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">86</span></a>&#46; Este estudio se realiz&#243; en pacientes con aspiraci&#243;n continua de secreciones subgl&#243;ticas&#44; de modo que queda por establecer si esta disfunci&#243;n no se presenta en la succi&#243;n intermitente&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Todo y la limitada evidencia&#44; hay un tubo endotraqueal&#44; Microcuff<span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#8482;</span>&#44; que incorpora un neumotaponamiento con membrana de poliuretano ultradelgada &#40;7<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#956;&#44; en comparaci&#243;n con las 50<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#956; de los neumotaponamientos convencionales&#41; y proporciona un mejor sellado de la v&#237;a a&#233;rea&#44; con lo que se reduce la formaci&#243;n de los pliegues que se crean cuando se infla el neumotaponamiento<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib87"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">87</span></a>&#46; Por otra parte&#44; el tubo endotraqueal SealGuard Evac &#40;Mallinckrodt&#41; incorpora neumotaponamiento de poliuretano y succi&#243;n de secreciones subgl&#243;ticas<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib88"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">88</span></a>&#46; Un estudio prospectivo y aleatorizado con 280 pacientes compar&#243; el tubo convencional con el tubo endotraqueal SealGuard Evac &#40;Mallinckrodt&#41;&#44; y encontr&#243; una disminuci&#243;n significativa&#44; de m&#225;s de 3 veces&#44; de la incidencia de NAV temprana y tard&#237;a utilizando el drenaje de secreciones subgl&#243;ticas de forma intermitente<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib88"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">88</span></a>&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">En un estudio aleatorizado&#44; Bouza et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib89"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">89</span></a> compararon la aspiraci&#243;n convencional con la aspiraci&#243;n de secreciones subgl&#243;ticas de forma continua en pacientes operados de cirug&#237;a card&#237;aca&#44; y concluyeron que los pacientes con m&#225;s de 48<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h de VM y aspiraci&#243;n subgl&#243;tica tuvieron una incidencia menor de NAV &#40;p&#61;0&#44;03&#41; y que la medida disminuy&#243; el uso de antibi&#243;ticos &#40;p&#60;0&#44;001&#41;&#46;</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Control de la presi&#243;n del neumotaponamiento</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Una funci&#243;n fundamental del neumotaponamiento del tubo endotraqueal es sellar la v&#237;a a&#233;rea de tal manera que no permita la fuga de aire al exterior&#44; que no comprometa la perfusi&#243;n de la mucosa traqueal y que impida el paso de secreciones subgl&#243;ticas a la v&#237;a a&#233;rea inferior<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib47"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">47&#44;90&#44;91</span></a>&#46; Los neumotaponamientos convencionales&#44; de alto volumen y baja presi&#243;n&#44; no pueden prevenir las microaspiraciones ni con presiones de hasta 60<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cmH<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>O<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib92"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">92</span></a>&#46; A pesar de un control autom&#225;tico de la presi&#243;n del bal&#243;n&#44; puede haber paso de secreciones hacia la v&#237;a a&#233;rea inferior<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib81"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">81</span></a>&#46; Teniendo en cuenta la informaci&#243;n disponible&#44; se recomienda mantener la presi&#243;n del bal&#243;n de neumotaponamiento entre 20 y 30<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cmH<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>O&#44; todo y que la prevenci&#243;n de las microaspiraciones no sea &#243;ptima&#44; ya que el aumento de la presi&#243;n del neumotaponamiento por encima de 30<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cmH<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>O puede producir lesi&#243;n traqueal<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;6&#44;93&#8211;97</span></a>&#46;</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Evitar cambios o manipulaci&#243;n de las tubuladuras del respirador</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Las condensaciones que aparecen en las tubuladuras del respirador que utilizan humidificadores&#44; especialmente los de agua caliente&#44; corren el riesgo de contaminarse&#46; Craven et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib98"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">98</span></a> demostraron una mayor incidencia de NAV en los pacientes a quienes se cambiaban los circuitos del ventilador cada 24<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h&#44; comparados con aquellos en quienes el cambio se realizaba cada 48<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h&#46; Posteriormente Kollef<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib99"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">99</span></a> describi&#243; que cambiar las tubuladuras del respirador cada 7 d&#237;as no aumentaba la incidencia de NAV&#44; pero s&#237; incrementaba los costes&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Se deben implementar procedimientos adecuados para drenar las condensaciones y evitar que el personal sanitario facilite su desplazamiento hacia la v&#237;a a&#233;rea inferior con los movimientos del paciente o de las tubuladuras<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">100&#8211;102</span></a>&#46; Por tanto&#44; se recomienda cambiarlas cuando se encuentren visualmente contaminadas de sangre&#44; v&#243;mito o secreciones purulentas<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;103&#44;104</span></a>&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Con respecto a los humidificadores de agua caliente y a los intercambiadores de calor y humedad&#44; se considera que estos &#250;ltimos pueden reducir la acumulaci&#243;n de condensaciones y la colonizaci&#243;n de las tubuladuras&#44; pero no se ha asociado a una disminuci&#243;n de la incidencia de NAV<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib103"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">103&#44;105&#44;106</span></a>&#46;</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Posici&#243;n de semisedestaci&#243;n</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Al menos 3 estudios con marcaci&#243;n radiactiva del contenido g&#225;strico han demostrado que el reflujo g&#225;strico y su posterior aspiraci&#243;n en los pacientes con VM pod&#237;an evitarse con la semisedestaci&#243;n<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib92"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">92&#44;107&#44;108</span></a>&#46; La posici&#243;n supina facilita la aspiraci&#243;n de secreciones subgl&#243;ticas&#44; especialmente cuando el paciente recibe nutrici&#243;n enteral<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib92"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">92&#44;109&#44;110</span></a>&#46; Drakulovic et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib110"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">110</span></a> demostraron el beneficio de la semisedestaci&#243;n &#40;45&#176;&#41;&#44; que disminuy&#243; la tasa de aspiraci&#243;n orog&#225;strica y la incidencia de NAV &#40;3 veces menos&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib110"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">110&#44;111</span></a>&#59; adem&#225;s se observ&#243; una tendencia a disminuir la tasa de mortalidad cuando se compar&#243; con la posici&#243;n supina neutra &#40;0&#176;&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib110"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">110</span></a>&#46; Recientemente&#44; Van Nieuwenhoven et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib112"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">112</span></a>&#44; en un ensayo cl&#237;nico controlado&#44; cuestionan la viabilidad de mantener a los pacientes constantemente en semisedestaci&#243;n &#40;45&#176;&#41; y su utilidad para prevenir la NAV&#46; En 4 UCI de Holanda aleatorizaron a 221 pacientes en 2 grupos&#58; uno con la cabecera a 45&#176; y otro a 10&#176;&#46; No se logr&#243; la meta de cabecera a 45&#176; durante el 85&#37; del tiempo y la diferencia obtenida entre los 2 grupos &#40;28 frente a 10&#176;&#41; no previno el desarrollo de NAV&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Se recomienda la semisedestaci&#243;n especialmente en pacientes que reciban nutrici&#243;n enteral&#44; debido al bajo coste que esta intervenci&#243;n requiere&#44; su f&#225;cil aplicaci&#243;n y su establecida eficacia&#46;</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Camas cin&#233;ticas</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Los pacientes hospitalizados en la UCI&#44; debido a su confinamiento en cama&#44; corren m&#225;s riesgo de presentar complicaciones pulmonares &#40;atelectasias&#44; mal manejo de las secreciones&#44; etc&#46;&#41;&#46; Se ha propuesto el uso de camas cin&#233;ticas&#44; que permiten la rotaci&#243;n continua de estos pacientes para disminuir la incidencia de la NAV&#46; Ensayos cl&#237;nicos controlados han demostrado una reducci&#243;n del riesgo de NAV en el grupo de pacientes quir&#250;rgicos y neuroquir&#250;rgicos&#44; sin demostrarlo en pacientes m&#233;dicos<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib113"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">113&#44;114</span></a>&#46; Sin embargo&#44; la utilizaci&#243;n de estas camas tiene m&#250;ltiples barreras&#58; el mayor coste&#44; la posibilidad de desconexi&#243;n de cat&#233;teres endovenosos y la dificultad para controlar las zonas de presi&#243;n<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib113"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">113</span></a>&#46;</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Nutrici&#243;n enteral</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Est&#225; establecido que la desnutrici&#243;n en el paciente cr&#237;tico produce deterioro del sistema inmunitario&#44; disfunci&#243;n del impulso respiratorio y debilidad de los m&#250;sculos respiratorios&#44; lo que lleva a la dependencia prolongada del respirador y al aumento de la morbimortalidad<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib115"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">115</span></a>&#44; adem&#225;s de asociarse a mayor estancia hospitalaria<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib115"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">115&#44;116</span></a>&#46; A pesar de que no hay ensayos cl&#237;nicos controlados que de manera significativa y definitiva demuestren beneficios en los resultados cl&#237;nicos importantes&#44; tales como la duraci&#243;n de la VM&#44; de la estancia en la UCI y la mortalidad&#44; el soporte nutricional se considera un componente integral de lo que debe ser el tratamiento &#243;ptimo de los pacientes en la UCI<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib117"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">117&#44;118</span></a>&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Sin embargo&#44; este tratamiento no est&#225; exento de complicaciones&#46; La nutrici&#243;n enteral se ha considerado un factor de riesgo para la NAV dada la posibilidad de aspiraci&#243;n del contenido g&#225;strico<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib2"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;92&#44;109&#44;117&#44;119&#44;120</span></a>&#46; Una publicaci&#243;n reciente describe que el establecimiento y seguimiento de un protocolo de nutrici&#243;n enteral&#44; que inclu&#237;a la semisedestaci&#243;n &#40;&#62; 30&#176;&#41;&#44; logr&#243; que el 85&#37; de los pacientes obtuviera la meta de nutrici&#243;n enteral &#40;un 78&#37; antes del protocolo&#41; y que la incidencia de NAV se redujera de 6&#44;8 a 3&#44;2 por cada 1&#46;000 d&#237;as de VM<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib121"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">121</span></a>&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">En una revisi&#243;n sistem&#225;tica de la literatura m&#233;dica que compar&#243; la nutrici&#243;n enteral con la parenteral en pacientes cr&#237;ticos con respecto a su evoluci&#243;n&#44; no hubo diferencias estad&#237;sticamente significativas en cuanto a mortalidad&#44; pero s&#237; un aumento significativo de las complicaciones infecciosas&#44; tales como NAV&#44; neumon&#237;a aspirativa&#44; infecciones urinarias&#44; bacteriemia&#44; abscesos intraabdominales y sepsis asociada a cat&#233;ter&#44; adem&#225;s de incrementar los costes<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib122"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">122&#44;123</span></a>&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Un metaan&#225;lisis reciente de 11 ensayos cl&#237;nicos controlados&#44; realizados en la UCI&#44; que evalu&#243; la mortalidad&#44; el riesgo de aspiraci&#243;n y la neumon&#237;a&#44; no encontr&#243; diferencias significativas en la evoluci&#243;n y concluy&#243; que&#44; en los pacientes cr&#237;ticos sin evidencia de alteraci&#243;n de la motilidad gastrointestinal&#44; la utilizaci&#243;n de nutrici&#243;n pospil&#243;rica no se asociaba a beneficios cl&#237;nicos<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib124"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">124</span></a>&#46;</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Conclusiones</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Este art&#237;culo revisa la evidencia relacionada con las medidas no farmacol&#243;gicas que han demostrado tener un impacto en la prevenci&#243;n de la NAV&#46; Se recomienda implementar algunas de estas intervenciones de forma conjunta para obtener mejores resultados&#46;</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Financiaci&#243;n</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Financiado en parte por CibeRes y AGAUR SGR 05&#47;520&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">El Dr&#46; Restrepo cuenta con una beca de UTHSCSA y NIH a trav&#233;s del mecanismo del CTSA &#40;KL2 RR025766&#41;&#46;</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Conflictos de intereses</span><p class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">El Dr&#46; Restrepo ejerce de <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">speaker</span> para Ortho-McNeil-Janssen&#44; Johnson &#38; Johnson&#44; Pfizer&#44; BARD Inc&#46; y Covidien&#46; Tambi&#233;n pertenece al comit&#233; de asesoramiento de Ortho-McNeil-Janssen y Johnson &#38; Johnson&#46;</p></span></span>"
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        2 => array:2 [
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          "titulo" => "Abstract"
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          "titulo" => "Keywords"
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        4 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Introducci&#243;n"
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        5 => array:2 [
          "titulo" => "Medidas generales para el control de infecciones"
          "secciones" => array:1 [
            0 => array:1 [
              "titulo" => "Higiene de las manos"
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          ]
        ]
        6 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Ratio adecuada de personal sanitario"
        ]
        7 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Evitar los traslados intrahospitalarios innecesarios"
        ]
        8 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Uso de la ventilaci&#243;n mec&#225;nica no invasiva &#40;VMNI&#41;"
        ]
        9 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Desconexi&#243;n temprana de la ventilaci&#243;n mec&#225;nica"
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        10 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Intubaci&#243;n orotraqueal&#47;sonda orog&#225;strica"
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        11 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Prevenci&#243;n de la formaci&#243;n de biofilme o biocapa"
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        12 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Drenaje de secreciones subgl&#243;ticas"
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        13 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Control de la presi&#243;n del neumotaponamiento"
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        14 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Evitar cambios o manipulaci&#243;n de las tubuladuras del respirador"
        ]
        15 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Posici&#243;n de semisedestaci&#243;n"
        ]
        16 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Camas cin&#233;ticas"
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        17 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Nutrici&#243;n enteral"
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        18 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Conclusiones"
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        19 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Financiaci&#243;n"
        ]
        20 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Conflictos de intereses"
        ]
        21 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Bibliograf&#237;a"
        ]
      ]
    ]
    "pdfFichero" => "main.pdf"
    "tienePdf" => true
    "fechaRecibido" => "2009-04-02"
    "fechaAceptado" => "2009-08-30"
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        0 => array:4 [
          "clase" => "keyword"
          "titulo" => "Palabras clave"
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          "palabras" => array:5 [
            0 => "Neumon&#237;a asociada a ventilaci&#243;n mec&#225;nica"
            1 => "Respiraci&#243;n artificial"
            2 => "Infecci&#243;n hospitalaria"
            3 => "Unidad de cuidados intensivos"
            4 => "Prevenci&#243;n de enfermedades"
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        0 => array:4 [
          "clase" => "keyword"
          "titulo" => "Keywords"
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          "palabras" => array:5 [
            0 => "Ventilator-associated pneumonia"
            1 => "Artificial respiration"
            2 => "Cross infection"
            3 => "Intensive care unit"
            4 => "Disease prevention"
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        "resumen" => "<p class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">La neumon&#237;a asociada a ventilaci&#243;n mec&#225;nica es la primera causa de mortalidad por infecciones nosocomiales en la unidad de cuidados intensivos&#46; Su incidencia oscila entre el 9 y el 67&#37; de los pacientes que requieren ventilaci&#243;n mec&#225;nica&#46; Hay m&#250;ltiples factores de riesgo asociados y aumenta significativamente la estancia en la unidad de cuidados intensivos y en el hospital&#46; El coste adicional por cada neumon&#237;a asociada a ventilaci&#243;n mec&#225;nica oscila entre 9&#46;000 y 31&#46;000 &#8364;&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Por tanto&#44; su prevenci&#243;n debe considerarse una prioridad&#46; &#201;sta podr&#237;a disminuir tanto la morbimortalidad asociada como el coste de la atenci&#243;n&#44; y mejorar la seguridad del paciente&#46;</p>"
      ]
      "en" => array:2 [
        "titulo" => "Abstract"
        "resumen" => "<p class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Ventilator-associated pneumonia &#40;VAP&#41; is the first cause of mortality due to nosocomial infections in the intensive care unit&#46; Its incidence ranges from 9&#37; to 67&#37; of patients on mechanical ventilation&#46; Risk factors are multiple and are associated with prolonged stays in hospital and intensive care units&#46; Additional costs for each episode of VAP range from 9&#44;000 &#8364; to 31&#44;000 &#8364;&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Thus&#44; its prevention should be considered as a priority&#46; This prevention could decrease associated morbidity&#44; mortality&#44; costs&#44; and increase patient safety&#46;</p>"
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                  \t\t\t\t">Factores modificables&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">1&#46; Posici&#243;n supina&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">2&#46; Sobredistensi&#243;n g&#225;strica&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">3&#46; Contaminaci&#243;n de las tubuladuras del respirador&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">4&#46; Traslados frecuentes del paciente&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">5&#46; Baja presi&#243;n del neumotaponamiento&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Factores no modificables&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">4&#46; Fallo multiorg&#225;nico&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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          "leyenda" => "<p class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Los valores est&#225;n expresados en porcentajes&#46; R&#58; De Rosa et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib26"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26</span></a>&#59; S&#58; Sierra et al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib25"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span></a>&#59; UCI&#58; unidad de cuidados intensivos&#46;</p>"
          "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [
            0 => array:2 [
              "tabla" => array:1 [
                0 => """
                  <table border="0" frame="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n
                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " colspan="2" align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Global</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " colspan="2" align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Hospitales universtarios</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " colspan="2" align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Hospitales no universitarios</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " colspan="4" align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Camas de hospital</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " colspan="4" align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Camas de UCI</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " colspan="2" align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"></td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " colspan="2" align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"></td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " colspan="2" align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"></td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " colspan="2" align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">&#62;500</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " colspan="2" align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">&#61;500</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " colspan="2" align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">&#62;10</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " colspan="2" align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">&#61;10</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">R &#40;n&#61;24&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">S &#40;n&#61;28&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">R &#40;n&#61;9&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">S &#40;n&#61;15&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">R &#40;n&#61;14&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">S &#40;n&#61;13&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">R &#40;n&#61;4&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">S &#40;n&#61;14&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">R &#40;n&#61;20&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">S &#40;n&#61;14&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">R &#40;n&#61;16&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">S &#40;n&#61;14&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">R &#40;n&#61;8&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">S &#40;n&#61;14&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Cambio de tubuladuras del respirador cada&#61;72<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">96&#44;5&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">71&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">100&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">80&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">93&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">62&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">100&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">79&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">95&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">64&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">100&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">79&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">94&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">64&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Humidificadores con intercambiadores calor&#47;humedad&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">57&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">96&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">67&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">100&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">47&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">92&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">50&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">100&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">55&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">93&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">50&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">100&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">56&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">93&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Uso de equipos de succi&#243;n abierta&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">26&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">96&#44;6&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">45&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">93&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">7&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">100&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">93&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">25&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">100&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">12&#44;5&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">100&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">25&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">92&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Uso de equipos de succi&#243;n abierta y cerrada&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">59&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">45&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">73&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">75&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">60&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">62&#44;5&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">62&#44;5&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Equipos de succi&#243;n subgl&#243;tica&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">41&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">22&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
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                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">55&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">56&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">25&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Control diario del neumotaponamiento del tubo endotraqueal&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">69&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">85&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">71&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">75&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">43&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">71&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Posici&#243;n en semisedestaci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">75&#44;5&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">92&#44;5&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
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                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">75&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
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                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">100&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">93&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">62&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">93&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Ventilaci&#243;n no invasiva como primera l&#237;nea de tratamiento&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">64&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">69&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">71&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
                  """
              ]
              "imagenFichero" => array:1 [
                0 => "xTab262696.png"
              ]
            ]
          ]
        ]
        "descripcion" => array:1 [
          "es" => "<p class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Comparaci&#243;n del cumplimiento de medidas no farmacol&#243;gicas<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib25"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25&#44;26</span></a></p>"
        ]
      ]
      2 => array:7 [
        "identificador" => "tbl3"
        "etiqueta" => "Tabla 3"
        "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA"
        "mostrarFloat" => true
        "mostrarDisplay" => false
        "tabla" => array:2 [
          "leyenda" => "<p class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">ATS&#47;IDSA&#58; American Thoracic Society&#47;Infectious Diseases Society of America&#59; CCCS&#58; Canadian Critical Care Society&#59; CDC&#58; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention&#59; EPOC&#58; enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva cr&#243;nica&#59; ETF&#58; European Task Force&#59; UCI&#58; unidad de cuidados intensivos&#46;</p>"
          "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [
            0 => array:2 [
              "tabla" => array:1 [
                0 => """
                  <table border="0" frame="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n
                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Medidas no farmacol&#243;gicas&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">ATS&#47;IDSA 2005<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">CDC 2003<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib2"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">ETF 2001<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib27"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">CCCS 2004<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib28"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Comentarios y recomendaciones&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Medidas generales para el control de infecciones&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&#46; Educaci&#243;n al grupo&#44; vigilancia microbiol&#243;gica&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Ratio adecuada de personal sanitario&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&#46; Se propone una adecuada relaci&#243;n enfermera-paciente &#40;1&#58;1&#41; y terapeuta respiratorio entrenado en UCI&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Evitar los traslados intrahospitalarios innecesarios&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&#46; Si es necesario&#44; tomar medidas para evitar la NAV&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Uso de ventilaci&#243;n mec&#225;nica no invasiva&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&#46; Alternativa para EPOC descompensada&#44; insuficiencia respiratoria hipox&#233;mica y algunos pacientes inmunodeprimidos&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Desconexi&#243;n temprana de la ventilaci&#243;n mec&#225;nica&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&#46; Interrumpir la sedaci&#243;n diariamente&#44; implementar una gu&#237;a para extubaci&#243;n temprana&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Intubaci&#243;n orotraqueal&#47;sonda orog&#225;strica&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&#46; Intubaci&#243;n orotraqueal y sonda orog&#225;strica&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Prevenci&#243;n de la formaci&#243;n de biofilme o biocapa&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Se debe investigar&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Drenaje de secreciones subgl&#243;ticas&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Se debe investigar&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&#46; Especialmente en las UCI donde la incidencia de NAV sea alta&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Control de la presi&#243;n del neumotaponamiento&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&#46; Por lo menos a 20 cmH<span class="elsevierStyleInf">2</span>O&#46; Aunque puede haber fuga de secreciones&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Evitar cambios o manipulaci&#243;n en las tubuladuras del respirador&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&#46; S&#243;lo cambiarlas cuando est&#233;n visualmente contaminadas&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Posici&#243;n de semisedestaci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&#46; Permanencia a 30-45&#186; todo el tiempo&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Camas cin&#233;ticas&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Se debe investigar&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&#46; Indicadas en pacientes posquir&#250;rgicos y neurol&#243;gicos&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Nutrici&#243;n enteral&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Se debe investigar&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">S&#237;&#44; tan temprano como sea posible&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Nutrici&#243;n enteral g&#225;strica o pospil&#243;rica&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Pospil&#243;rica&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Se debe investigar&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sin menci&#243;n&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">G&#225;strica si no hay evidencia de alteraci&#243;n de la motilidad gastrointestinal&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  """
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                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
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                  "host" => array:1 [
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                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:1 [
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                        "tituloSerie" => "Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis"
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                        "link" => array:1 [ …1]
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                0 => array:2 [
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                        "link" => array:1 [ …1]
                        "itemHostRev" => array:3 [ …3]
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ISSN: 03002896
Original language: Spanish
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