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    "textoCompleto" => "<p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Introduction</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease &#40;COPD&#41; is characterized by airflow limitation which is usually progressive&#44; only partially reversible&#44; and associated with an abnormal inflammatory response of the lungs to noxious particles&#44; mainly from cigarette smoke&#46; In order to establish a COPD diagnosis&#44; spirometry must detect a forced expiratory volume in the first second &#40;FEV<span class="elsevierStyleInf">1</span>&#41; after bronchodilation less than 80&#37; of predicted&#44; with a ratio of FEV<span class="elsevierStyleInf">1</span> to forced vital capacity &#40;FVC&#41; less than 70&#37;&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Both the prevalence and morbimortality of COPD are high&#44;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span> such that the disease represents a real public health problem and a major burden on health-care resources&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">3-5</span> The epidemiological analysis of COPD is difficult owing to the problems of defining and diagnosing the disease&#46; This&#44; coupled with the fact that many patients are not diagnosed until clinical signs are present and the disease is moderately advanced means that the information about morbidity may be underestimated&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span> Problems such as these reinforce the need to carry out studies that would determine the prevalence and true impact of COPD in Spain--such as the IBERPOC study&#44;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span> which detected a prevalence of 9&#46;1&#37; in the population between 40 and 69 years of age and a high percentage of undiagnosed cases and inappropriate treatments in known cases&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The natural history of COPD is closely bound to smoking and some authors question the diagnosis in cases where subjects do not have a significant smoking history&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span> At present&#44; 35&#46;7&#37; of Spaniards older than 16 years of age are smokers&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The aim of our study was to detect the prevalence of COPD in the target population for current or ex-smokers 40 years of age or older and&#44; secondarily&#44; to identify the characteristics of tobacco consumption and its possible relationship to the disease&#44; together with other factors such as age or sex&#44; all of which were analysed from the perspective of their implications for primary care&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Materials and Methods</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">A cross-sectional descriptive study was conducted in the city of Toledo&#44; Spain between October 2001 and October 2002&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The sample population formed part of the 1003-subject target population of current or ex-smokers &#40;no smoking in the last 6 months&#41;&#44; 40 years of age or older&#44; who visited their assigned primary care physician&#46; The population was young &#40;subjects 65 years of age or older accounted for 7&#37;&#41; with a medium to low socioeconomic status and an unemployment rate similar to the national average&#46; Most were employed in service industries&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Visits by persons older than 40 years of age were used to examine their smoking history and enroll them in the study if they were current or ex-smokers&#46; Patients who did not visit the doctor during this period were contacted by telephone&#44; but if they were not located after three calls&#44; no more calls were made&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Predicting an 85&#37; response rate &#40;853 persons&#41; and that 50&#37; would be current or ex-smokers&#44; the sample size needed was fixed at 425 people&#46; This was a large enough sample to estimate the prevalence of COPD&#44; assuming an expected frequency of 15&#37;&#44; an accuracy of approximately 4&#37;&#44; and a 95&#37; confidence interval &#40;CI&#41;&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Data collected concerned age&#44; sex&#44; and smoking history &#40;age smoking began&#44; daily consumption&#44; type of tobacco &#91;blonde&#44; black&#44; or others&#93;&#44; and number of years and attempts to quit&#41; of subjects enrolled&#46; Later the index of smoking history in pack-years was calculated &#40;&#91;number of cigarettes smoked per day x number of years of smoking&#93;&#47;20&#41; and authorization was requested to perform spirometry&#44; noting the reason in case of a patient&#39;s refusal&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Spirometry was performed by a single tester &#40;a primary care physician&#41; previously trained at the pneumology department of the referral hospital&#46; The Pony Graphic spirometer &#40;Cosmed&#44; SRL&#44; Rome&#44; Italy&#41; was used&#46; The recommendations of the Spanish Society of Pulmonology and Thoracic Surgery &#40;SEPAR&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span> were followed when testing and the spirometer was calibrated at the end of each session with a 3-L syringe&#46; The spirometric reference values used for comparison were those of Roca et al&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">If spirometry detected obstruction &#40;FEV<span class="elsevierStyleInf">1</span>&#47;FVC &#60;70&#37;&#41;&#44; a bronchodilator test was performed and 15 to 20 minutes later&#44; spirometry was repeated after 2 inhalations &#40;500 &#181;g&#47;dose&#41; of terbutaline with the Turbuhaler<span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#174;</span> system&#46; According to the results of the bronchodilator test&#44; the patient was considered to have COPD when the FEV<span class="elsevierStyleInf">1</span>&#47;FVC ratio was less than 70&#37; and the FEV<span class="elsevierStyleInf">1</span> less than 80&#37; of predicted and not to have COPD if the FEV<span class="elsevierStyleInf">1</span>&#47;FVC ratio was 70&#37; or more&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The severity of COPD was evaluated in terms of the percentages of FEV<span class="elsevierStyleInf">1</span> as follows<span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span>&#58; mild &#40;FEV<span class="elsevierStyleInf">1</span> 80&#37;-60&#37;&#41;&#44; moderate &#40;FEV<span class="elsevierStyleInf">1</span> 60&#37;-40&#37;&#41;&#44; severe &#40;FEV<span class="elsevierStyleInf">1</span> &#60;40&#37;&#41;&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The standard variables were used &#40;mean&#44; median&#44; SD&#44; percentage&#41;&#44; with their respective CIs&#44; to describe the results&#46; The statistical analysis was performed with the SPSS 9&#46;0 program&#44; using Pearsons &#967;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span> test for categorical variables&#46; A Mann-Whitney U test was used to analyze quantitative variables with a nonnormal distribution established by means of a Kolmogorov-Smirnov test&#46; The odds ratio &#40;OR&#41; was used for the epidemiological study&#46; To adjust the OR for factors influencing the prevalence of COPD&#44; a binary logistic regression model was constructed&#44; using the presence of COPD as the dependent variable and the other variables as independent ones&#46; Before accepting the final model&#44; interaction between main variables &#40;age&#44; smoking history&#44; and tobacco type&#41; was ruled out&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Results</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Of the 1003 persons 40 years or older assigned to the primary care physician&#44; contact attempts failed with 120 subjects &#40;11&#46;9&#37;&#41;&#46; Of the 883 subjects contacted&#44; 439 &#40;49&#46;7&#37;&#41; were never-smokers&#44; 196 &#40;22&#46;2&#37;&#41; ex-smokers&#44; and 248 &#40;28&#46;1&#37;&#41; current smokers at the time of the study&#46; Of the 444 smokers and ex-smokers&#44; 65&#46;8&#37; were men and 34&#46;2&#37; were women&#46; The mean &#40;SD&#41; age was 53&#46;5 &#40;11&#46;4&#41; years&#46; The median age for starting smoking was 16&#46;5 years &#40;interquartile range&#58; 5&#46;0&#41;&#46; Of these subjects&#44; 72&#46;1&#37; had tried to quit at least once&#46; The median pack-year rate was 26&#46;7 &#40;interquartile range&#58; 27&#46;8&#41;&#46; Blonde tobacco was consumed by 45&#46;9&#37;&#44; black tobacco by 35&#46;6&#37;&#44; and both types by 18&#46;2&#37;&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Spirometry could not be performed in 17 cases &#40;3&#46;8&#37;&#41; due to lack of cooperation of 9 patients&#44; technical difficulties with 3 patients&#44; and other causes for 5 patients&#46; Seventy &#40;16&#46;4&#37;&#41; of the 427 patients for whom data were complete were diagnosed with COPD &#40;95&#37; CI&#44; 12&#46;9-19&#46;9&#41;&#46; Fifty-nine cases &#40;84&#46;3&#37; of those with COPD&#41; were in men and 11 &#40;15&#46;7&#37;&#41; were in women&#46; In total&#44; 54&#46;2&#37; were mild cases&#44; 35&#46;7&#37; were moderate&#44; and 10&#46;1&#37; severe&#46; Forty-six &#40;65&#46;7&#37;&#41; of the patients with COPD had not been previously diagnosed&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Figure 1 shows that based on univariate analysis&#44; the frequency of COPD was higher in men &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span>&#60;&#46;001&#41;&#44; those 50 years of age or older &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span>&#60;&#46;001&#41;&#44; ex-smokers &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span>&#60;&#46;05&#41;&#44; and consumers of black tobacco &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span>&#60;&#46;001&#41;&#46; There existed a clear relationship between age &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span>&#60;&#46;001&#41; and smoking history &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span>&#60;&#46;001&#41; but age smoking began was not significantly related &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span>&#61;&#46;07&#41; &#40;Figure 2&#41;&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><img src="260v39n12-13055461tab01.gif"></img></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Figure 1&#46; Frequency of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease &#40;COPD&#41; according to sex&#44; age&#44; smoking history&#44; and type of tobacco consumed by smokers or ex-smokers older than 40 years of age&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><img src="260v39n12-13055461tab02.gif"></img></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Figure 2&#46; Comparison of median age&#44; smoking history&#44; and age smoking began among patients with and without chronic obstructive pulmonary disease &#40;COPD&#41;&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">After multivariate analysis &#40;Table&#41; the only significant associations were age &#40;adjusted OR&#61;1&#46;07&#59; 95&#37; CI&#44; 1&#46;04-1&#46;10&#41; and smoking history &#40;adjusted OR&#61;1&#46;04&#59; 95&#37; CI&#44; 1&#46;02-1&#46;06&#41;&#46; Black tobacco had an adjusted OR of 1&#46;84 &#40;95&#37; CI&#44; 0&#46;87-3&#46;90&#41; without reaching statistical significance</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><img src="260v39n12-13055461tab03.gif"></img></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Discussion</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Before beginning the discussion of the results we must warn of possible bias&#46; Given the inclusion in the study of previously diagnosed COPD cases&#44; who were all located&#44; together with the impossibility of contacting 12&#37; of the target population or of performing spirometry on all subjects&#44; the prevalence detected may be slightly overestimated&#46; According to our estimations&#44; based on the incidence found in the population without previous diagnoses&#44; if we had been able to get 100&#37; participation&#44; the prevalence would be of the order of 15&#46;6&#37;&#44; slightly lower than the 16&#46;4&#37; observed&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The prevalence we observed is slightly higher than that of other studies&#44; although comparison is exceptionally difficult because our design was different from those of the other studies&#46; Thus&#44; in the IBERPOC<span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span> study&#44; which found a 14&#46;6&#37; prevalence in current and ex-smokers among subjects aged 40 to 69 years&#44; the spirometric criteria proposed by the European Respiratory Society &#40;FEV<span class="elsevierStyleInf">1</span>&#47;FVC &#60;88&#37; of predicted in men and &#60;89&#37; in women&#41; was used&#46; Brotons et al&#44;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span> who define airflow limitation at FEV<span class="elsevierStyleInf">1</span> lower than 70&#37; of the predicted value combined with a ratio of FEV<span class="elsevierStyleInf">1</span>&#47;FVC less than 70&#37;&#44; found a prevalence of 9&#46;1&#37; in the general population 35 to 65 years of age&#46; In a study by Marco et al<span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span> using the same diagnostic criteria we used&#44; the population was made up of men between 40 and 60 years of age and a prevalence of COPD of 7&#46;5&#37; in men that are current or ex-smokers can be deduced from the data&#46; Nonetheless&#44; we can not compare our data to theirs given that the target populations were different&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The results regarding the prevalence of COPD according to smoking dependence are similar to those of other studies&#46; Our results show a 12&#46;1&#37; prevalence of COPD in current smokers and 20&#46;4&#37; in ex-smokers&#46; This difference&#44; however&#44; is due to a confounding effect of age&#44; which is greater in the ex-smokers &#40;in fact&#44; on doing the multivariate analysis&#44; the OR was 1&#46;01&#41;&#44; and to the fact that 20 of the 24 patients with previously diagnosed COPD had quit smoking&#44; swelling&#44; therefore&#44; the ranks of ex-smokers&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The same pattern holds true with regard to sex&#46; At first sight&#44; the prevalence of COPD in men is almost 4 times greater than in women<span class="elsevierStyleSup">6&#44;12&#44;13</span>&#59; nonetheless&#44; this is due to the existence of confounding factors &#40;age and smoking history&#41;&#46; Controlling for these variables by multivariate analysis indicates that being male is not in itself a risk factor for COPD&#46; In any case&#44; in the near future&#44; given the rise in tobacco consumption by women during the decade 1970-1980&#44; we will probably witness a substantial increase in COPD cases in women&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Basically&#44; the variables related to the greatest risk of COPD are age and smoking history&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">6&#44;15</span> Although obvious&#44; we must remind ourselves that any preventive measure taken in relation to COPD must be inevitably linked to the fight against tobacco&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">A special mention should be reserved for the type of tobacco consumed&#46; Although the relevance of the consumption of black tobacco was not statistically significant in the final regression model&#44; we believe it might be worth investigating further given that we have been unable to find any mention of it in the literature&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">We would like to draw attention to the high number of cases of COPD that are not diagnosed&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">7&#44;15</span> The percentage was 78&#46;2&#37; in the IBERPOC study<span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span> and 65&#37; in ours&#46; The lower percentage in the present study may be explained by the fact that we studied a population assigned to one doctor who had been using spirometry as a diagnostic tool for years and who therefore would have had more experience than other professionals who do not use this resource&#46; In any case&#44; in both studies the data reflect a situation that is difficult to accept&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">There are 2 possible explanations for the low number of diagnoses of COPD&#58; low use of respiratory tests on the part of the family practitioner<span class="elsevierStyleSup">16&#44;17</span> and the reluctance of smokers to consult for symptoms they consider normal&#44; such as cough or expectoration&#46; Such patients usually seek medical help only when they experience dyspnea &#40;either basal or during the process of acute exacerbation&#41; at a relatively advanced stage of the disease&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span> There can be no doubt&#44; therefore&#44; of the need to establish an early diagnosis of the disease &#40;in the preclinical phase&#41;&#46; The most appropriate context for this is primary care and the most efficient diagnostic approach would be to perform spirometry on groups at risk &#40;mainly smokers in the range of 40 to 50 years of age or older&#41; either by screening<span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span> or fortuitous case finding&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span> It is necessary to ensure that spirometry is performed correctly&#44; that existing standards of quality are met&#44;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span> and that professionals who do it are trained and supervised&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></p><hr></hr><p class="elsevierStylePara">Correspondence&#58; Dr&#46; J&#46;I&#46; Ja&#233;n D&#237;az&#46;<br></br> Centro de Salud Santa M&#46;&#170; de Benquerencia&#46;<br></br> Guadarrama&#44; s&#47;n&#46; 45003 Toledo&#46; Espa&#241;a&#46;<br></br> E-mail&#58; <a href="mailto&#58;flopez&#64;sescam&#46;org" class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs"> flopez&#64;sescam&#46;org</a></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Manuscript received March 17&#44; 2003&#46; Accepted for publication July 1&#44; 2003&#46;</p>"
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        "resumen" => "Objective&#58; To estimate the prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease &#40;COPD&#41; in smokers and ex-smokers over 40 years of age and describe the associated risk factors&#46; Material and methods&#58; A cross-sectional descriptive study at primary care level in which 444 current or ex-smokers 40 years of age or older were enrolled&#46; Spirometry was performed with all subjects&#46; If the ratio of forced expiratory volume in 1 second to forced vital capacity &#40;FEV1&#47;FVC&#41; was less than 70&#37;&#44; a bronchodilator test was performed and spirometry was repeated after 2 inhalations of terbutaline &#40;500 &#181;g&#47;dose&#41;&#46; If the FEV1&#47;FVC ratio continued to be less than 70&#37; and FEV1 less than 80&#37; of predicted&#44; COPD was diagnosed&#46; Age&#44; sex&#44; smoking&#44; age smoking began&#44; index of smoking history &#40;packs per day x years smoking&#41; and attempts to quit smoking were also recorded&#46; Results&#58; The patients&#39; mean age was 53&#46;5 years and 65&#46;8&#37; were men&#46; At the time of the study&#44; 248 subjects &#40;55&#46;9&#37;&#41; were current smokers&#46; The median age smoking began was 16&#46;5 years and the median pack-years index was 26&#46;7&#46; At least 1 attempt to quit had been made by 72&#46;1&#37; of the patients&#46; COPD was diagnosed in 70 subjects &#40;24 with the diagnosis previously established&#41;&#44; representing a prevalence of 16&#46;4&#37; &#40;95&#37; confidence interval&#44; 12&#46;9-19&#46;9&#41;&#46; COPD was serious in 10&#37;&#46; A multifactorial analysis indicated that age and smoking history in pack-years were significantly associated with COPD&#46; Conclusions&#58; The prevalence of COPD in our study is slightly higher than in other studies&#44; although selection bias may have affected our results given that we were unable to contact 11&#46;9&#37; of the population sample&#46; Almost two thirds of cases had not been previously diagnosed&#46; Two major risk factors are age and cumulative tobacco consumption&#46;"
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        "resumen" => "Material y m&#233;todos&#58; Se realiz&#243; un estudio descriptivo transversal en el &#225;mbito de la atenci&#243;n primaria&#46; En &#233;l se incluyo a 444 personas de 40 a&#241;os de edad o mayores que fumaban o hab&#237;an fumado&#46; A todos se les realiz&#243; una espirometr&#237;a&#46; Si la relaci&#243;n volumen espiratorio forzado en el primer segundo&#47;porcentaje de la capacidad vital forzada era menor del 70&#37;&#44; se realizaba una prueba de broncodilataci&#243;n y se repet&#237;a la espirometr&#237;a a los 15-20 min tras dos inhalaciones de terbutalina &#40;500 &#956;g&#47;dosis&#41;&#46; Si la relaci&#243;n volumen espiratorio forzado en el primer segundo&#47;porcentaje de la capacidad vital forzada segu&#237;a siendo inferior al 70&#37; y el volumen espiratorio forzado en el primer segundo menor del 80&#37; del te&#243;rico&#44; se diagnosticaba EPOC&#46; Tambi&#233;n se recogieron edad&#44; sexo&#44; consumo de tabaco&#44; edad de inicio&#44; &#237;ndice tab&#225;quico &#40;paquetes&#47;d&#237;a x a&#241;os de consumo&#41; e intentos de abandono&#46; Resultados&#58; La edad media de los pacientes era de 53&#44;5 a&#241;os&#44; y un 65&#44;8&#37; eran varones&#46; En el momento del realizar el estudio fumaban 248 sujetos &#40;55&#44;9&#37;&#41;&#46; La mediana de inicio del consumo result&#243; de 16&#44;5 a&#241;os&#44; y la del &#237;ndice tab&#225;quido fue de 26&#44;7&#46; El 72&#44;1&#37; hab&#237;a realizado al menos un intento de abandono&#46; Se diagnostic&#243; de EPOC a 70 personas &#40;24 ya conocidas&#41;&#44; lo que supone una prevalencia del 16&#44;4&#37; &#40;intervalo de confianza del 95&#37;&#44; 12&#44;9-19&#44;9&#41;&#46; Un 10&#37; eran casos graves&#46; Tras el an&#225;lisis multifactorial resultaron significativamente asociadas a EPOC la edad y el &#237;ndice tab&#225;quico&#46; Conclusiones&#58; La prevalencia de EPOC hallada es ligeramente superior a la de otros estudios&#44; si bien puede existir un sesgo en los resultados obtenidos al no haber podido establecer contacto con el 11&#44;9&#37; de la poblaci&#243;n objeto del estudio&#46; Casi dos tercios de los casos eran desconocidos&#46; Son claros factores de riesgo la edad y el consumo acumulado de tabaco&#46;"
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Prevalence of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and Risk Factors in Smokers and Ex-Smokers
Prevalencia y factores de riesgo de EPOC en fumadores y ex fumadores
JI. Jaén Díaza, C. de Castro Mesaa, G. Gontána, MJ. Salamancaa, F. López de Castrob
a Médico de Familia, Centro de Salud Santa M.ª de Benquerencia, Toledo, Spain.
b Médico de Familia, Coordinador de la Unidad Docente de Medicina de Familia y Comunitaria, Toledo, Spain.
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    "textoCompleto" => "<p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Introduction</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease &#40;COPD&#41; is characterized by airflow limitation which is usually progressive&#44; only partially reversible&#44; and associated with an abnormal inflammatory response of the lungs to noxious particles&#44; mainly from cigarette smoke&#46; In order to establish a COPD diagnosis&#44; spirometry must detect a forced expiratory volume in the first second &#40;FEV<span class="elsevierStyleInf">1</span>&#41; after bronchodilation less than 80&#37; of predicted&#44; with a ratio of FEV<span class="elsevierStyleInf">1</span> to forced vital capacity &#40;FVC&#41; less than 70&#37;&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Both the prevalence and morbimortality of COPD are high&#44;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span> such that the disease represents a real public health problem and a major burden on health-care resources&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">3-5</span> The epidemiological analysis of COPD is difficult owing to the problems of defining and diagnosing the disease&#46; This&#44; coupled with the fact that many patients are not diagnosed until clinical signs are present and the disease is moderately advanced means that the information about morbidity may be underestimated&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span> Problems such as these reinforce the need to carry out studies that would determine the prevalence and true impact of COPD in Spain--such as the IBERPOC study&#44;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span> which detected a prevalence of 9&#46;1&#37; in the population between 40 and 69 years of age and a high percentage of undiagnosed cases and inappropriate treatments in known cases&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The natural history of COPD is closely bound to smoking and some authors question the diagnosis in cases where subjects do not have a significant smoking history&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span> At present&#44; 35&#46;7&#37; of Spaniards older than 16 years of age are smokers&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The aim of our study was to detect the prevalence of COPD in the target population for current or ex-smokers 40 years of age or older and&#44; secondarily&#44; to identify the characteristics of tobacco consumption and its possible relationship to the disease&#44; together with other factors such as age or sex&#44; all of which were analysed from the perspective of their implications for primary care&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Materials and Methods</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">A cross-sectional descriptive study was conducted in the city of Toledo&#44; Spain between October 2001 and October 2002&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The sample population formed part of the 1003-subject target population of current or ex-smokers &#40;no smoking in the last 6 months&#41;&#44; 40 years of age or older&#44; who visited their assigned primary care physician&#46; The population was young &#40;subjects 65 years of age or older accounted for 7&#37;&#41; with a medium to low socioeconomic status and an unemployment rate similar to the national average&#46; Most were employed in service industries&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Visits by persons older than 40 years of age were used to examine their smoking history and enroll them in the study if they were current or ex-smokers&#46; Patients who did not visit the doctor during this period were contacted by telephone&#44; but if they were not located after three calls&#44; no more calls were made&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Predicting an 85&#37; response rate &#40;853 persons&#41; and that 50&#37; would be current or ex-smokers&#44; the sample size needed was fixed at 425 people&#46; This was a large enough sample to estimate the prevalence of COPD&#44; assuming an expected frequency of 15&#37;&#44; an accuracy of approximately 4&#37;&#44; and a 95&#37; confidence interval &#40;CI&#41;&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Data collected concerned age&#44; sex&#44; and smoking history &#40;age smoking began&#44; daily consumption&#44; type of tobacco &#91;blonde&#44; black&#44; or others&#93;&#44; and number of years and attempts to quit&#41; of subjects enrolled&#46; Later the index of smoking history in pack-years was calculated &#40;&#91;number of cigarettes smoked per day x number of years of smoking&#93;&#47;20&#41; and authorization was requested to perform spirometry&#44; noting the reason in case of a patient&#39;s refusal&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Spirometry was performed by a single tester &#40;a primary care physician&#41; previously trained at the pneumology department of the referral hospital&#46; The Pony Graphic spirometer &#40;Cosmed&#44; SRL&#44; Rome&#44; Italy&#41; was used&#46; The recommendations of the Spanish Society of Pulmonology and Thoracic Surgery &#40;SEPAR&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span> were followed when testing and the spirometer was calibrated at the end of each session with a 3-L syringe&#46; The spirometric reference values used for comparison were those of Roca et al&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">If spirometry detected obstruction &#40;FEV<span class="elsevierStyleInf">1</span>&#47;FVC &#60;70&#37;&#41;&#44; a bronchodilator test was performed and 15 to 20 minutes later&#44; spirometry was repeated after 2 inhalations &#40;500 &#181;g&#47;dose&#41; of terbutaline with the Turbuhaler<span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#174;</span> system&#46; According to the results of the bronchodilator test&#44; the patient was considered to have COPD when the FEV<span class="elsevierStyleInf">1</span>&#47;FVC ratio was less than 70&#37; and the FEV<span class="elsevierStyleInf">1</span> less than 80&#37; of predicted and not to have COPD if the FEV<span class="elsevierStyleInf">1</span>&#47;FVC ratio was 70&#37; or more&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The severity of COPD was evaluated in terms of the percentages of FEV<span class="elsevierStyleInf">1</span> as follows<span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span>&#58; mild &#40;FEV<span class="elsevierStyleInf">1</span> 80&#37;-60&#37;&#41;&#44; moderate &#40;FEV<span class="elsevierStyleInf">1</span> 60&#37;-40&#37;&#41;&#44; severe &#40;FEV<span class="elsevierStyleInf">1</span> &#60;40&#37;&#41;&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The standard variables were used &#40;mean&#44; median&#44; SD&#44; percentage&#41;&#44; with their respective CIs&#44; to describe the results&#46; The statistical analysis was performed with the SPSS 9&#46;0 program&#44; using Pearsons &#967;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span> test for categorical variables&#46; A Mann-Whitney U test was used to analyze quantitative variables with a nonnormal distribution established by means of a Kolmogorov-Smirnov test&#46; The odds ratio &#40;OR&#41; was used for the epidemiological study&#46; To adjust the OR for factors influencing the prevalence of COPD&#44; a binary logistic regression model was constructed&#44; using the presence of COPD as the dependent variable and the other variables as independent ones&#46; Before accepting the final model&#44; interaction between main variables &#40;age&#44; smoking history&#44; and tobacco type&#41; was ruled out&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Results</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Of the 1003 persons 40 years or older assigned to the primary care physician&#44; contact attempts failed with 120 subjects &#40;11&#46;9&#37;&#41;&#46; Of the 883 subjects contacted&#44; 439 &#40;49&#46;7&#37;&#41; were never-smokers&#44; 196 &#40;22&#46;2&#37;&#41; ex-smokers&#44; and 248 &#40;28&#46;1&#37;&#41; current smokers at the time of the study&#46; Of the 444 smokers and ex-smokers&#44; 65&#46;8&#37; were men and 34&#46;2&#37; were women&#46; The mean &#40;SD&#41; age was 53&#46;5 &#40;11&#46;4&#41; years&#46; The median age for starting smoking was 16&#46;5 years &#40;interquartile range&#58; 5&#46;0&#41;&#46; Of these subjects&#44; 72&#46;1&#37; had tried to quit at least once&#46; The median pack-year rate was 26&#46;7 &#40;interquartile range&#58; 27&#46;8&#41;&#46; Blonde tobacco was consumed by 45&#46;9&#37;&#44; black tobacco by 35&#46;6&#37;&#44; and both types by 18&#46;2&#37;&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Spirometry could not be performed in 17 cases &#40;3&#46;8&#37;&#41; due to lack of cooperation of 9 patients&#44; technical difficulties with 3 patients&#44; and other causes for 5 patients&#46; Seventy &#40;16&#46;4&#37;&#41; of the 427 patients for whom data were complete were diagnosed with COPD &#40;95&#37; CI&#44; 12&#46;9-19&#46;9&#41;&#46; Fifty-nine cases &#40;84&#46;3&#37; of those with COPD&#41; were in men and 11 &#40;15&#46;7&#37;&#41; were in women&#46; In total&#44; 54&#46;2&#37; were mild cases&#44; 35&#46;7&#37; were moderate&#44; and 10&#46;1&#37; severe&#46; Forty-six &#40;65&#46;7&#37;&#41; of the patients with COPD had not been previously diagnosed&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Figure 1 shows that based on univariate analysis&#44; the frequency of COPD was higher in men &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span>&#60;&#46;001&#41;&#44; those 50 years of age or older &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span>&#60;&#46;001&#41;&#44; ex-smokers &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span>&#60;&#46;05&#41;&#44; and consumers of black tobacco &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span>&#60;&#46;001&#41;&#46; There existed a clear relationship between age &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span>&#60;&#46;001&#41; and smoking history &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span>&#60;&#46;001&#41; but age smoking began was not significantly related &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span>&#61;&#46;07&#41; &#40;Figure 2&#41;&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><img src="260v39n12-13055461tab01.gif"></img></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Figure 1&#46; Frequency of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease &#40;COPD&#41; according to sex&#44; age&#44; smoking history&#44; and type of tobacco consumed by smokers or ex-smokers older than 40 years of age&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><img src="260v39n12-13055461tab02.gif"></img></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Figure 2&#46; Comparison of median age&#44; smoking history&#44; and age smoking began among patients with and without chronic obstructive pulmonary disease &#40;COPD&#41;&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">After multivariate analysis &#40;Table&#41; the only significant associations were age &#40;adjusted OR&#61;1&#46;07&#59; 95&#37; CI&#44; 1&#46;04-1&#46;10&#41; and smoking history &#40;adjusted OR&#61;1&#46;04&#59; 95&#37; CI&#44; 1&#46;02-1&#46;06&#41;&#46; Black tobacco had an adjusted OR of 1&#46;84 &#40;95&#37; CI&#44; 0&#46;87-3&#46;90&#41; without reaching statistical significance</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><img src="260v39n12-13055461tab03.gif"></img></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Discussion</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Before beginning the discussion of the results we must warn of possible bias&#46; Given the inclusion in the study of previously diagnosed COPD cases&#44; who were all located&#44; together with the impossibility of contacting 12&#37; of the target population or of performing spirometry on all subjects&#44; the prevalence detected may be slightly overestimated&#46; According to our estimations&#44; based on the incidence found in the population without previous diagnoses&#44; if we had been able to get 100&#37; participation&#44; the prevalence would be of the order of 15&#46;6&#37;&#44; slightly lower than the 16&#46;4&#37; observed&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The prevalence we observed is slightly higher than that of other studies&#44; although comparison is exceptionally difficult because our design was different from those of the other studies&#46; Thus&#44; in the IBERPOC<span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span> study&#44; which found a 14&#46;6&#37; prevalence in current and ex-smokers among subjects aged 40 to 69 years&#44; the spirometric criteria proposed by the European Respiratory Society &#40;FEV<span class="elsevierStyleInf">1</span>&#47;FVC &#60;88&#37; of predicted in men and &#60;89&#37; in women&#41; was used&#46; Brotons et al&#44;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span> who define airflow limitation at FEV<span class="elsevierStyleInf">1</span> lower than 70&#37; of the predicted value combined with a ratio of FEV<span class="elsevierStyleInf">1</span>&#47;FVC less than 70&#37;&#44; found a prevalence of 9&#46;1&#37; in the general population 35 to 65 years of age&#46; In a study by Marco et al<span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span> using the same diagnostic criteria we used&#44; the population was made up of men between 40 and 60 years of age and a prevalence of COPD of 7&#46;5&#37; in men that are current or ex-smokers can be deduced from the data&#46; Nonetheless&#44; we can not compare our data to theirs given that the target populations were different&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The results regarding the prevalence of COPD according to smoking dependence are similar to those of other studies&#46; Our results show a 12&#46;1&#37; prevalence of COPD in current smokers and 20&#46;4&#37; in ex-smokers&#46; This difference&#44; however&#44; is due to a confounding effect of age&#44; which is greater in the ex-smokers &#40;in fact&#44; on doing the multivariate analysis&#44; the OR was 1&#46;01&#41;&#44; and to the fact that 20 of the 24 patients with previously diagnosed COPD had quit smoking&#44; swelling&#44; therefore&#44; the ranks of ex-smokers&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The same pattern holds true with regard to sex&#46; At first sight&#44; the prevalence of COPD in men is almost 4 times greater than in women<span class="elsevierStyleSup">6&#44;12&#44;13</span>&#59; nonetheless&#44; this is due to the existence of confounding factors &#40;age and smoking history&#41;&#46; Controlling for these variables by multivariate analysis indicates that being male is not in itself a risk factor for COPD&#46; In any case&#44; in the near future&#44; given the rise in tobacco consumption by women during the decade 1970-1980&#44; we will probably witness a substantial increase in COPD cases in women&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Basically&#44; the variables related to the greatest risk of COPD are age and smoking history&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">6&#44;15</span> Although obvious&#44; we must remind ourselves that any preventive measure taken in relation to COPD must be inevitably linked to the fight against tobacco&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">A special mention should be reserved for the type of tobacco consumed&#46; Although the relevance of the consumption of black tobacco was not statistically significant in the final regression model&#44; we believe it might be worth investigating further given that we have been unable to find any mention of it in the literature&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">We would like to draw attention to the high number of cases of COPD that are not diagnosed&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">7&#44;15</span> The percentage was 78&#46;2&#37; in the IBERPOC study<span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span> and 65&#37; in ours&#46; The lower percentage in the present study may be explained by the fact that we studied a population assigned to one doctor who had been using spirometry as a diagnostic tool for years and who therefore would have had more experience than other professionals who do not use this resource&#46; In any case&#44; in both studies the data reflect a situation that is difficult to accept&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">There are 2 possible explanations for the low number of diagnoses of COPD&#58; low use of respiratory tests on the part of the family practitioner<span class="elsevierStyleSup">16&#44;17</span> and the reluctance of smokers to consult for symptoms they consider normal&#44; such as cough or expectoration&#46; Such patients usually seek medical help only when they experience dyspnea &#40;either basal or during the process of acute exacerbation&#41; at a relatively advanced stage of the disease&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span> There can be no doubt&#44; therefore&#44; of the need to establish an early diagnosis of the disease &#40;in the preclinical phase&#41;&#46; The most appropriate context for this is primary care and the most efficient diagnostic approach would be to perform spirometry on groups at risk &#40;mainly smokers in the range of 40 to 50 years of age or older&#41; either by screening<span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span> or fortuitous case finding&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span> It is necessary to ensure that spirometry is performed correctly&#44; that existing standards of quality are met&#44;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span> and that professionals who do it are trained and supervised&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></p><hr></hr><p class="elsevierStylePara">Correspondence&#58; Dr&#46; J&#46;I&#46; Ja&#233;n D&#237;az&#46;<br></br> Centro de Salud Santa M&#46;&#170; de Benquerencia&#46;<br></br> Guadarrama&#44; s&#47;n&#46; 45003 Toledo&#46; Espa&#241;a&#46;<br></br> E-mail&#58; <a href="mailto&#58;flopez&#64;sescam&#46;org" class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs"> flopez&#64;sescam&#46;org</a></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Manuscript received March 17&#44; 2003&#46; Accepted for publication July 1&#44; 2003&#46;</p>"
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        "resumen" => "Objective&#58; To estimate the prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease &#40;COPD&#41; in smokers and ex-smokers over 40 years of age and describe the associated risk factors&#46; Material and methods&#58; A cross-sectional descriptive study at primary care level in which 444 current or ex-smokers 40 years of age or older were enrolled&#46; Spirometry was performed with all subjects&#46; If the ratio of forced expiratory volume in 1 second to forced vital capacity &#40;FEV1&#47;FVC&#41; was less than 70&#37;&#44; a bronchodilator test was performed and spirometry was repeated after 2 inhalations of terbutaline &#40;500 &#181;g&#47;dose&#41;&#46; If the FEV1&#47;FVC ratio continued to be less than 70&#37; and FEV1 less than 80&#37; of predicted&#44; COPD was diagnosed&#46; Age&#44; sex&#44; smoking&#44; age smoking began&#44; index of smoking history &#40;packs per day x years smoking&#41; and attempts to quit smoking were also recorded&#46; Results&#58; The patients&#39; mean age was 53&#46;5 years and 65&#46;8&#37; were men&#46; At the time of the study&#44; 248 subjects &#40;55&#46;9&#37;&#41; were current smokers&#46; The median age smoking began was 16&#46;5 years and the median pack-years index was 26&#46;7&#46; At least 1 attempt to quit had been made by 72&#46;1&#37; of the patients&#46; COPD was diagnosed in 70 subjects &#40;24 with the diagnosis previously established&#41;&#44; representing a prevalence of 16&#46;4&#37; &#40;95&#37; confidence interval&#44; 12&#46;9-19&#46;9&#41;&#46; COPD was serious in 10&#37;&#46; A multifactorial analysis indicated that age and smoking history in pack-years were significantly associated with COPD&#46; Conclusions&#58; The prevalence of COPD in our study is slightly higher than in other studies&#44; although selection bias may have affected our results given that we were unable to contact 11&#46;9&#37; of the population sample&#46; Almost two thirds of cases had not been previously diagnosed&#46; Two major risk factors are age and cumulative tobacco consumption&#46;"
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        "resumen" => "Material y m&#233;todos&#58; Se realiz&#243; un estudio descriptivo transversal en el &#225;mbito de la atenci&#243;n primaria&#46; En &#233;l se incluyo a 444 personas de 40 a&#241;os de edad o mayores que fumaban o hab&#237;an fumado&#46; A todos se les realiz&#243; una espirometr&#237;a&#46; Si la relaci&#243;n volumen espiratorio forzado en el primer segundo&#47;porcentaje de la capacidad vital forzada era menor del 70&#37;&#44; se realizaba una prueba de broncodilataci&#243;n y se repet&#237;a la espirometr&#237;a a los 15-20 min tras dos inhalaciones de terbutalina &#40;500 &#956;g&#47;dosis&#41;&#46; Si la relaci&#243;n volumen espiratorio forzado en el primer segundo&#47;porcentaje de la capacidad vital forzada segu&#237;a siendo inferior al 70&#37; y el volumen espiratorio forzado en el primer segundo menor del 80&#37; del te&#243;rico&#44; se diagnosticaba EPOC&#46; Tambi&#233;n se recogieron edad&#44; sexo&#44; consumo de tabaco&#44; edad de inicio&#44; &#237;ndice tab&#225;quico &#40;paquetes&#47;d&#237;a x a&#241;os de consumo&#41; e intentos de abandono&#46; Resultados&#58; La edad media de los pacientes era de 53&#44;5 a&#241;os&#44; y un 65&#44;8&#37; eran varones&#46; En el momento del realizar el estudio fumaban 248 sujetos &#40;55&#44;9&#37;&#41;&#46; La mediana de inicio del consumo result&#243; de 16&#44;5 a&#241;os&#44; y la del &#237;ndice tab&#225;quido fue de 26&#44;7&#46; El 72&#44;1&#37; hab&#237;a realizado al menos un intento de abandono&#46; Se diagnostic&#243; de EPOC a 70 personas &#40;24 ya conocidas&#41;&#44; lo que supone una prevalencia del 16&#44;4&#37; &#40;intervalo de confianza del 95&#37;&#44; 12&#44;9-19&#44;9&#41;&#46; Un 10&#37; eran casos graves&#46; Tras el an&#225;lisis multifactorial resultaron significativamente asociadas a EPOC la edad y el &#237;ndice tab&#225;quico&#46; Conclusiones&#58; La prevalencia de EPOC hallada es ligeramente superior a la de otros estudios&#44; si bien puede existir un sesgo en los resultados obtenidos al no haber podido establecer contacto con el 11&#44;9&#37; de la poblaci&#243;n objeto del estudio&#46; Casi dos tercios de los casos eran desconocidos&#46; Son claros factores de riesgo la edad y el consumo acumulado de tabaco&#46;"
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