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    "textoCompleto" => "<p class="elsevierStylePara"> Ultrasound--or echography--has emerged as a powerful tool for those who study diseases of the chest as it has for other specialists&#46; Once a rarely used technique&#44; ultrasound is now indicated for most thoracic diseases&#46; In the past&#44; use was infrequent because of certain inherent limitations of the technique&#58; the bones and the air space of the lung parenchyma create an acoustic barrier that impedes and reflects sound waves&#44; thereby producing major artifacts&#46; In short&#44; given that these two thoracic structures &#40;the bones and the lung parenchyma&#41; represent more than 80&#37; of the content of the chest&#44; the value of ultrasound as a diagnostic tool for the thorax might understandably be questioned&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"> Moreover&#44; in challenging the place of conventional radiography--the undisputed first choice for diagnostic imaging of the thorax--ultrasound has tough competition from magnetic resonance imaging&#44; and&#44; especially&#44; computed tomography in its many varieties &#40;high-resolution&#44; spiral&#44; multidetector row&#41;&#46; Both techniques have shown their value in diagnosing chest diseases&#58; their high resolution and multiplanar viewing capability provide a better approximation of anatomical reality than surgery or even traditional anatomical dissection&#46; Pathological alterations may be observed from any perspective&#58; axial&#44; sagittal coronal&#44; or parasagittal&#46; It is even possible to produce three-dimensional reconstructions from this data&#44; leading to what is today known as virtual bronchoscopy &#40;of the entire tracheobronchial tree&#41; or virtual angioscopy &#40;of the pulmonary and mediastinal blood vessels&#41;&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"> What advantages does ultrasound offer to support its use in diagnosing thoracic diseases&#63; Ultrasound is innocuous&#44; mobile&#44; easy to use&#44; inexpensive&#44; accessible&#44; and can be viewed in real time&#46; These inherent virtues&#44; despite the aforementioned technical drawbacks&#44; provide significant incentives&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The widespread use of real time imaging and small&#44; high frequency transducer probes permit the narrow windows of the intercostal spaces to be used effectively in thoracic evaluation&#46; Moreover&#44; adding ultrasound imaging capability to fiberoptic endoscopes used in the esophagus and bronchi extends and enhances their usefulness for examining peribronchial and mediastinal spaces&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">3&#44;4</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"> Traditional indications for ultrasound&#44; such as the diagnosis of chest wall diseases and pleural effusion&#44; are widely known and used&#46; Without having to move the patient&#44; bedside ultrasound can detect even a few milliliters of fluid in the pleural space&#46; The characteristic echographic pattern of the pleural fluid is anechoic &#40;without echoes&#41; with a posterior band of hyperechoic reflection&#44; while solid lesions are echogenic to a greater or lesser extent&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span> Pleural transudate is generally anechoic whereas pleural exudate&#44; with its greater protein content &#40;&#62;3 g&#47;100 mL&#41;&#44; has echogenic septa and may even be homogeneously echogenic&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span> However&#44; certain solid tumors located in the pleura&#44; especially lymphomas and some neurogenic tumors&#44; appear as anechoic masses because they transmit ultrasonic waves&#44; possibly leading to diagnostic error&#46; On the other hand&#44; some pleural exudates and empyema appear as echoic lesions and may even appear hyperechoic at times&#46; This is why the specificity of ultrasound in differentiating solids from liquids is not 100&#37;&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"> Ultrasound has other indications in the thorax that are less widely known and applied&#59; this does not&#44; however&#44; make them any less valid&#46; Thoracic trauma affecting soft tissues and bony structures&#44; as well as pneumothorax of any origin&#44; can be diagnosed by ultrasound&#46; Several studies have shown that ultrasound can even improve on the results of conventional radiography in fractures of the sternum and ribs&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">7&#44;8</span> Rowan et al&#44;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span> in a recent study of 27 patients suspected of having traumatic pneumothorax&#44; showed that ultrasound was more sensitive than supine chest radiography and as sensitive as computed tomography&#46; Moreover&#44; ultrasound&#44; whether percutaneous or endoscopic&#44; is effective for examining problems of the diaphragm&#44; heart&#44; pericardium&#44; and the large arteries and veins of the thorax&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">10-12</span> Considering these indications&#44; the benefits of ultrasound for emergency assessment of chest injury in the polytraumatized patient are evident&#44; particularly when patient mobility is compromised or computed tomography is unavailable&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"> Doppler duplex ultrasound&#44; with or without color&#44; has been shown to have a sensitivity and specificity similar to phlebography in diagnosing venous thrombosis of the inferior vena cava and the extremities&#46; Doppler ultrasound is also able to accurately diagnose the presence of a thrombus in cardiac cavities or in the trunk of the pulmonary artery&#46; Currently&#44; the usefulness of this technique in the treatment of venous thromboembolism and&#44; more specifically&#44; pulmonary embolism is unquestioned&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">14&#44;15</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"> Ultrasound was originally presented as an imaging technique to assist in the diagnosis of interstitial lung diseases because it provided information on associated pleural pathology and subpleural lung infiltrates&#44; especially in follow-up studies&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The application of ultrasonic techniques to thoracic interventions has improved and advanced many invasive procedures that were once performed with the guidance of a fluoroscope&#46; Biopsies of lung nodules &#40;peripheral masses in contact with the pleural viscera&#41; as well as drainage of pleural and pericardial effusions&#44; mediastinal and lung abscesses&#44; and pneumothorax can all be performed safely and effectively using ultrasound guidance&#44; with no need for radiation&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">16-20</span> With ultrasound&#44; follow up and monitoring of these interventions can be carried out easily and inexpensively at the patient&#180;s bedside&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span> Ultrasound facilitates correct access to the great central venous pathways&#44; principally the jugular and subclavian veins&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">In the future&#44; diagnostic and research applications may move toward using ultrasound in conjunction with endoscopic devices&#44; such as fiberoptic bronchoscopes&#44; esophagogastroscopes&#44; pleuroscopes&#44; and laparoscopes&#46; Encouraging results have already been reported&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">3&#44;22</span> In this sense&#44; technological improvements and new advances will soon permit the use of ultrasound to explore the segmental and subsegmental bronchi&#44; the pleural space&#44; the mediastinum&#44; and any adjacent lesion&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The present relevance and future promise of ultrasound in respiratory medicine is manifest&#59; however&#44; the role of the pulmonologist in ultrasound remains to be determined&#46; At present&#44; thoracic ultrasound is provided by radiology services&#44; where highly satisfactory diagnostic yields have been achieved&#59; nonetheless&#44; caseloads and the increasing range of indications will determine the direction to be taken&#46; Either central imaging services will receive more technical and human resources to respond adequately to demand&#44; or&#44; as has already occurred in other specialties&#44; pulmonologists will have to insist on access to technical resources and prepare themselves to meet this need&#46;</p><hr></hr><p class="elsevierStylePara">Correspondence&#58; Dr&#46; M&#46;A&#46; Gregorio&#46;<br></br> Facultad de Medicina&#46; Universidad de Zaragoza&#46; Zaragoza&#46; Espa&#241;a&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Manuscript received June 3&#44; 2003&#46; Accepted for publication June 17&#44; 2003&#46;</p>"
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Ultrasound in Pulmonology: the Current Situation
La ultrasonografía en neumología: situación actual
MA. de Gregorioa, H. D'Agostinob
a Full Professor of Radiology, School of Medicine, Health Sciences Center, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA. Profesor titular de Radiología, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain.
b Full Professor of Radiology, School of Medicine, Health Sciences Center, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA.
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    "textoCompleto" => "<p class="elsevierStylePara"> Ultrasound--or echography--has emerged as a powerful tool for those who study diseases of the chest as it has for other specialists&#46; Once a rarely used technique&#44; ultrasound is now indicated for most thoracic diseases&#46; In the past&#44; use was infrequent because of certain inherent limitations of the technique&#58; the bones and the air space of the lung parenchyma create an acoustic barrier that impedes and reflects sound waves&#44; thereby producing major artifacts&#46; In short&#44; given that these two thoracic structures &#40;the bones and the lung parenchyma&#41; represent more than 80&#37; of the content of the chest&#44; the value of ultrasound as a diagnostic tool for the thorax might understandably be questioned&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"> Moreover&#44; in challenging the place of conventional radiography--the undisputed first choice for diagnostic imaging of the thorax--ultrasound has tough competition from magnetic resonance imaging&#44; and&#44; especially&#44; computed tomography in its many varieties &#40;high-resolution&#44; spiral&#44; multidetector row&#41;&#46; Both techniques have shown their value in diagnosing chest diseases&#58; their high resolution and multiplanar viewing capability provide a better approximation of anatomical reality than surgery or even traditional anatomical dissection&#46; Pathological alterations may be observed from any perspective&#58; axial&#44; sagittal coronal&#44; or parasagittal&#46; It is even possible to produce three-dimensional reconstructions from this data&#44; leading to what is today known as virtual bronchoscopy &#40;of the entire tracheobronchial tree&#41; or virtual angioscopy &#40;of the pulmonary and mediastinal blood vessels&#41;&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"> What advantages does ultrasound offer to support its use in diagnosing thoracic diseases&#63; Ultrasound is innocuous&#44; mobile&#44; easy to use&#44; inexpensive&#44; accessible&#44; and can be viewed in real time&#46; These inherent virtues&#44; despite the aforementioned technical drawbacks&#44; provide significant incentives&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The widespread use of real time imaging and small&#44; high frequency transducer probes permit the narrow windows of the intercostal spaces to be used effectively in thoracic evaluation&#46; Moreover&#44; adding ultrasound imaging capability to fiberoptic endoscopes used in the esophagus and bronchi extends and enhances their usefulness for examining peribronchial and mediastinal spaces&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">3&#44;4</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"> Traditional indications for ultrasound&#44; such as the diagnosis of chest wall diseases and pleural effusion&#44; are widely known and used&#46; Without having to move the patient&#44; bedside ultrasound can detect even a few milliliters of fluid in the pleural space&#46; The characteristic echographic pattern of the pleural fluid is anechoic &#40;without echoes&#41; with a posterior band of hyperechoic reflection&#44; while solid lesions are echogenic to a greater or lesser extent&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span> Pleural transudate is generally anechoic whereas pleural exudate&#44; with its greater protein content &#40;&#62;3 g&#47;100 mL&#41;&#44; has echogenic septa and may even be homogeneously echogenic&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span> However&#44; certain solid tumors located in the pleura&#44; especially lymphomas and some neurogenic tumors&#44; appear as anechoic masses because they transmit ultrasonic waves&#44; possibly leading to diagnostic error&#46; On the other hand&#44; some pleural exudates and empyema appear as echoic lesions and may even appear hyperechoic at times&#46; This is why the specificity of ultrasound in differentiating solids from liquids is not 100&#37;&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"> Ultrasound has other indications in the thorax that are less widely known and applied&#59; this does not&#44; however&#44; make them any less valid&#46; Thoracic trauma affecting soft tissues and bony structures&#44; as well as pneumothorax of any origin&#44; can be diagnosed by ultrasound&#46; Several studies have shown that ultrasound can even improve on the results of conventional radiography in fractures of the sternum and ribs&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">7&#44;8</span> Rowan et al&#44;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span> in a recent study of 27 patients suspected of having traumatic pneumothorax&#44; showed that ultrasound was more sensitive than supine chest radiography and as sensitive as computed tomography&#46; Moreover&#44; ultrasound&#44; whether percutaneous or endoscopic&#44; is effective for examining problems of the diaphragm&#44; heart&#44; pericardium&#44; and the large arteries and veins of the thorax&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">10-12</span> Considering these indications&#44; the benefits of ultrasound for emergency assessment of chest injury in the polytraumatized patient are evident&#44; particularly when patient mobility is compromised or computed tomography is unavailable&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"> Doppler duplex ultrasound&#44; with or without color&#44; has been shown to have a sensitivity and specificity similar to phlebography in diagnosing venous thrombosis of the inferior vena cava and the extremities&#46; Doppler ultrasound is also able to accurately diagnose the presence of a thrombus in cardiac cavities or in the trunk of the pulmonary artery&#46; Currently&#44; the usefulness of this technique in the treatment of venous thromboembolism and&#44; more specifically&#44; pulmonary embolism is unquestioned&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">14&#44;15</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"> Ultrasound was originally presented as an imaging technique to assist in the diagnosis of interstitial lung diseases because it provided information on associated pleural pathology and subpleural lung infiltrates&#44; especially in follow-up studies&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The application of ultrasonic techniques to thoracic interventions has improved and advanced many invasive procedures that were once performed with the guidance of a fluoroscope&#46; Biopsies of lung nodules &#40;peripheral masses in contact with the pleural viscera&#41; as well as drainage of pleural and pericardial effusions&#44; mediastinal and lung abscesses&#44; and pneumothorax can all be performed safely and effectively using ultrasound guidance&#44; with no need for radiation&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">16-20</span> With ultrasound&#44; follow up and monitoring of these interventions can be carried out easily and inexpensively at the patient&#180;s bedside&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span> Ultrasound facilitates correct access to the great central venous pathways&#44; principally the jugular and subclavian veins&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">In the future&#44; diagnostic and research applications may move toward using ultrasound in conjunction with endoscopic devices&#44; such as fiberoptic bronchoscopes&#44; esophagogastroscopes&#44; pleuroscopes&#44; and laparoscopes&#46; Encouraging results have already been reported&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">3&#44;22</span> In this sense&#44; technological improvements and new advances will soon permit the use of ultrasound to explore the segmental and subsegmental bronchi&#44; the pleural space&#44; the mediastinum&#44; and any adjacent lesion&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The present relevance and future promise of ultrasound in respiratory medicine is manifest&#59; however&#44; the role of the pulmonologist in ultrasound remains to be determined&#46; At present&#44; thoracic ultrasound is provided by radiology services&#44; where highly satisfactory diagnostic yields have been achieved&#59; nonetheless&#44; caseloads and the increasing range of indications will determine the direction to be taken&#46; Either central imaging services will receive more technical and human resources to respond adequately to demand&#44; or&#44; as has already occurred in other specialties&#44; pulmonologists will have to insist on access to technical resources and prepare themselves to meet this need&#46;</p><hr></hr><p class="elsevierStylePara">Correspondence&#58; Dr&#46; M&#46;A&#46; Gregorio&#46;<br></br> Facultad de Medicina&#46; Universidad de Zaragoza&#46; Zaragoza&#46; Espa&#241;a&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Manuscript received June 3&#44; 2003&#46; Accepted for publication June 17&#44; 2003&#46;</p>"
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ISSN: 15792129
Original language: English
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