We searched PubMed, Current Contents Connect, and ISI Web of Science for articles in English, French, German, and Spanish. We searched for “iron”, “iron deficiency”, “anaemia”, “nutrition”, “haemoglobin”, “bioavailability”, “supplementation”, “fortification”, “plant breeding”, and “genetic engineering”. We mainly selected publications from the past 5 years, but did not exclude highly regarded earlier publications.
SeminarNutritional iron deficiency
Section snippets
Epidemiology
Estimates of occurrence of iron deficiency in industrialised countries are usually derived from nationally representative samples with specific indicators of iron status.1 By contrast, estimates from developing countries are often based only on haemoglobin measurements from restricted regions or target populations, and should be interpreted with caution. Prevalence estimates of iron deficiency anaemia (ie, iron deficiency and low haemoglobin) based on haemoglobin alone are overestimations
Physiology
Human beings are unable to excrete iron actively, so its concentration in the body must be regulated at the site of iron absorption in the proximal small intestine (figure). Diets contain both haem and non-haem (inorganic) iron; each form has specific transporters. A putative intestinal haem iron transporter (HCP1) has been identified, which is upregulated by hypoxia and iron deficiency, and might also transport folate.11, 12 Transport of non-haem iron from the intestinal lumen into the
Causation
Nutritional iron deficiency arises when physiological requirements cannot be met by iron absorption from diet. Dietary iron bioavailability is low in populations consuming monotonous plant-based diets with little meat.32 In meat, 30–70% of iron is haem iron, of which 15–35% is absorbed.33 However, in plant-based diets in developing countries most dietary iron is non-haem iron, and its absorption is often less than 10%.32, 33 The absorption of non-haem iron is increased by meat and ascorbic
Adverse effects
The high frequency of iron deficiency anaemia in the developing world has substantial health and economic costs. In an analysis of ten developing countries, the median value of physical productivity losses per year due to iron deficiency was about US$0·32 per head, or 0·57% of the gross domestic product.54 In the WHO African subregion, it is estimated that if iron fortification reached 50% of the population, it would avert 570 000 disability adjusted life years (DALYs) every year.55 During the
Laboratory diagnosis
Table 2 shows useful indicators for diagnosis of iron deficiency anaemia in population studies. The major diagnostic challenge is to differentiate between iron deficiency anaemia in otherwise healthy individuals and anaemia of chronic disease. Inflammatory disorders increase circulating hepcidin concentrations,90 and hepcidin blocks iron release from enterocytes and the reticuloendothelial system,17 resulting in iron-deficient erythropoiesis. If chronic, inflammation can produce anaemia of
Strategies
Three main strategies for correcting iron deficiency in populations exist, alone or in combination: education combined with dietary modification or diversification, or both, to improve iron intake and bioavailability; iron supplementation (provision of iron, usually in higher doses, without food); and iron fortification of foods. A new approach is biofortification via plant breeding or genetic engineering. Although dietary modification and diversification is the most sustainable approach,
Conclusions
Nutritional iron deficiency is still common in young women and children in developing countries where monotonous, plant-based diets provide low amounts of bioavailable iron. The high prevalence of iron deficiency in the developing world has substantial health and economic costs. However, more data are needed on the functional consequences of iron deficiency; for example, the effect of iron status on immune function and cognition in infants and children needs to be clarified. Continuing rapid
Search strategy and selection criteria
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Iron fortification and iron supplementation are cost-effective interventions to reduce iron deficiency in four subregions of the world
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Iron supplementation improves iron status and reduces morbidity in children with or without upper respiratory tract infections: a randomized controlled study in Colombo, Sri Lanka
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Iron-deficiency anemia reduces thyroid peroxidase activity in rats
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Iron and zinc supplementation improves indicators of vitamin A status of Mexican preschoolers
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Am J Clin Nutr
Commentary on evidence that iron deficiency anemia causes reduced work capacity
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Marginal iron deficiency without anemia impairs aerobic adaptation among previously untrained women
Am J Clin Nutr
Iron supplementation improves progressive fatigue resistance during dynamic knee extension exercise in iron-depeleted, nonanemic women
Am J Clin Nutr
Clinical utility of the reticulocyte hemoglobin content in the diagnosis of iron deficiency
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Serum transferrin receptor and zinc protoporphyrin as indicators of iron status in African children
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Diagnosis and management of iron-deficiency anaemia
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Hemoglobin and ferritin are currently the most efficient indicators of population response to iron interventions: an analysis of nine randomized controlled trials
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Serum transferrin receptor: a quantitative measure of tissue iron deficiency
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Serum transferrin receptor concentration indicates increased erythropoiesis in Kenyan children with asymptomatic malaria
Am J Clin Nutr
Extruded rice fortified with micronized ground ferric pyrophosphate reduces iron deficiency in Indian school children: a double-blind, randomized, controlled trial
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The influence of high-altitude living on body iron
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Estimation of the effect of the acute phase response on indicators of micronutrient status in Indonesian infants
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Iron supplementation during pregnancy, anemia, and birth weight: a randomized controlled trial
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The effects of prophylactic iron given in prenatal supplements on iron status and birth outcomes: a randomized controlled trial
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